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Many of the world’s most pressing issues, such as the emergence of zoonotic diseases, can only be addressed through interdisciplinary research. However, the findings of interdisciplinary research are susceptible to miscommunication among both professional and non-professional audiences due to differences in training, language, experience, and understanding. Such miscommunication contributes to the misunderstanding of key concepts or processes and hinders the development of effective research agendas and public policy. These misunderstandings can also provoke unnecessary fear in the public and have devastating effects for wildlife conservation. For example, inaccurate communication and subsequent misunderstanding of the potential associations between certain bats and zoonoses has led to persecution of diverse bats worldwide and even government calls to cull them. Here, we identify four types of miscommunication driven by the use of terminology regarding bats and the emergence of zoonotic diseases that we have categorized based on their root causes: (1) incorrect or overly broad use of terms; (2) terms that have unstable usage within a discipline, or different usages among disciplines; (3) terms that are used correctly but spark incorrect inferences about biological processes or significance in the audience; (4) incorrect inference drawn from the evidence presented. We illustrate each type of miscommunication with commonly misused or misinterpreted terms, providing a definition, caveats and common misconceptions, and suggest alternatives as appropriate. While we focus on terms specific to bats and disease ecology, we present a more general framework for addressing miscommunication that can be applied to other topics and disciplines to facilitate more effective research, problem-solving, and public policy., publishedVersion

Despite extensive documentation of the ecological and economic importance of Old World fruit bats (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) and the many threats they face from humans, negative attitudes towards pteropodids have persisted, fuelled by perceptions of bats as being pests and undesirable neighbours. Such long-term negativity towards bats is now further exacerbated by more recent disease-related concerns, particularly associated with the current COVID-19 pandemic. There remains an urgent need to investigate and highlight the positive and beneficial aspects of bats across the Old World. While previous reviews have summarised these extensively, numerous new studies conducted over the last 36 years have provided further valuable data and insights which warrant an updated review. Here we synthesise research on pteropodid-plant interactions, comprising diet, ecological roles, and ecosystem services, conducted during 1985-2020. We uncovered a total of 311 studies covering 75 out of the known 201 pteropodid species (37%), conducted in 47 countries. The majority of studies documented diet (52% of all studies;67 pteropodid species), followed by foraging movement (49%;50 pteropodid species), with fewer studies directly investigating the roles played by pteropodids in seed dispersal (24%;41 pteropodid species), pollination (14%;19 pteropodid species), and conflict with fruit growers (12%;11 pteropodid species). Pteropodids were recorded feeding on 1072 plant species from 493 genera and 148 families, with fruits comprising the majority of plant parts consumed, followed by flowers/nectar/pollen, leaves, and other miscellaneous parts. Sixteen pteropodid species have been confirmed to act as pollinators for a total of 21 plant species, and 29 pteropodid species have been confirmed to act as seed dispersers for a total of 311 plant species. Anthropogenic threats disrupting bat-plant interactions in the Old World include hunting, direct persecution, habitat loss/disturbance, invasive species, and climate change, leading to ecosystem-level repercussions. We identify notable research gaps and important research priorities to support conservation action for pteropodids. © Copyright © 2021 Aziz, McConkey, Tanalgo, Sritongchuay, Low, Yong, Mildenstein, Nuevo-Diego, Lim and Racey.

Nepal Himalayas combine Oriental and Sino-Japanese zoogeographic realms as well as those of the eastern and western Himalayas. Physiography coupled with the diverse local climates has enriched the biodiversity of the Nepal Himalayas. The order Chiroptera constitutes more than 25% of the mammalian fauna and forms the most speciose group of mammals in Nepal, where bats are recorded within a wide range of elevations from 64m to 4154m. Climate variation in the past has been observed and projected change has been predicted, and an evaluation of the climate change impact on biodiversity and habitats has been initiated. However, none of the studies has assessed the impact of climate change on bats in the Himalayan range including Nepal, despite bats represent the largest mammalian group in the country. Through Species Distribution Modelling (SDM), we describe the present distribution range for five common species, further assess their response to future climatic changes. Specifically, the occurrence of bats against 10 environmental variables were projected under different climate scenarios; present, Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5 for 2050 and 2070 deploying maximum entropy modeling (MaxEnt). We prepared predicted distribution range maps and estimated area using Arc GIS 10.7.1. Among 10 uncorrelated bioclimatic variables, six contribute to the SDM significantly. Annual precipitation (bio12) is the most common variable for all five species. Two species shows wider present distribution ranges compared to other three. Under the climate change scenarios, although predictions varied among species, similar trends of the range shifting toward northern latitudes and higher elevations are observed. Since the larger part of the current potential distribution range lies outside protected areas, a landscape level conservation approach prioritizing bat conservation is needed. Future surveys should target ground truthing in the western region of the country.

Vaccines that autonomously transfer among individuals have been proposed as a strategy to control infectious diseases within inaccessible wildlife populations. However, rates of vaccine spread and epidemiological efficacy in real-world systems remain elusive. Here, we investigate whether topical vaccines that transfer among individuals through social contacts can control vampire bat rabies-a medically and economically important zoonosis in Latin America. Field experiments in three Peruvian bat colonies, which used fluorescent biomarkers as a proxy for the bat-to-bat transfer and ingestion of an oral vaccine, revealed that vaccine transfer would increase population-level immunity up to 2.6 times beyond the same effort using conventional, non-spreadable vaccines. Mathematical models showed that observed levels of vaccine transfer would reduce the probability, size and duration of rabies outbreaks, even at low but realistically achievable levels of vaccine application. Models further predicted that existing vaccines provide substantial advantages over culling bats-the policy currently implemented in North, Central and South America. Linking field studies with biomarkers to mathematical models can inform how spreadable vaccines may combat pathogens of health and conservation concern before costly investments in vaccine design and testing.

Many high-consequence human and animal pathogens persist in wildlife reservoirs. An understanding of the dynamics of these pathogens in their reservoir hosts is crucial to inform the risk of spill-over events, yet our understanding of these dynamics is frequently insufficient. Viral persistence in a wild bat population was investigated by combining empirical data and in-silico analyses to test hypotheses on mechanisms for viral persistence. A fatal zoonotic virus, European Bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2), in Daubenton’s bats (Myotis daubentonii) was used as a model system. A total of 1839 M. daubentonii were sampled for evidence of virus exposure and excretion during a prospective nine year serial cross-sectional survey. Multivariable statistical models demonstrated age-related differences in seroprevalence, with significant variation in seropositivity over time and among roosts. An Approximate Bayesian Computation approach was used to model the infection dynamics incorporating the known host ecology. The results demonstrate that EBLV-2 is endemic in the study population, and suggest that mixing between roosts during seasonal swarming events is necessary to maintain EBLV-2 in the population. These findings contribute to understanding how bat viruses can persist despite low prevalence of infection, and why infection is constrained to certain bat species in multispecies roosts and ecosystems.

The endemic Mauritian flying fox Pteropus niger is perceived to be a major fruit pest. Lobbying of the Government of Mauritius by fruit growers to control the flying fox population resulted in national culls in 2015 and 2016, with a further cull scheduled for 2018. A loss of c. 38,318 individuals has been reported and the species is now categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. However, until now there were no robust data available on damage to orchards caused by bats. During October 2015–February 2016 we monitored four major lychee Litchi chinensis and one mango (Mangifera spp.) orchard, and also assessed 10 individual longan Dimocarpus longan trees. Bats and introduced birds caused major damage to fruit, with 7–76% fruit loss (including natural fall and losses from fungal damage) per tree. Bats caused more damage to taller lychee trees (> 6 m high) than to smaller ones, whereas bird damage was independent of tree height. Bats damaged more fruit than birds in tall lychee trees, although this trend was reversed in small trees. Use of nets on fruiting trees can result in as much as a 23-fold reduction in the damage caused by bats if nets are applied correctly. There is still a need to monitor orchards over several seasons and to test non-lethal bat deterrence methods more widely.

Disruption of FOXP2, a gene encoding a forkhead domain transcription factor, may cause a severe developmental disorder of verbal communication, especially vocalization. In insectivorous bats, accelerated evolution of FoxP2 supports a previously proposed hypothesis that this gene plays a role in sensorimotor coordination. In order to validate this hypothesis, it is necessary to examine the expression of FoxP2 in the relevant sensorimotor structures involved in echolocation behavior. Here, we present the detailed spatial expression pattern of FoxP2 in the mature brain of Rhinolophus ferrumequinum using immunohistochemistry. FoxP2 expression was found in many regions of the bat brain. The homologous pattern of FoxP2 expression in this bat argues for the role of the gene in motor-related circuits. In addition, FoxP2 was strongly expressed in many regions related to echolocation such as the inferior colliculus, superior colliculus, periaqueductal gray, paralemniscal nucleus, nuclei of the lateral lemniscus, parabrachial nucleus and ambiguous nucleus. Overall, our findings imply that FoxP2 plays an important role in echolocation.

Artibeus jamaicensis is a medium-sized frugivorous microchiropteran bat that complements its diet with nectar and pollen during the dry season. We investigated which species of pollen are carried by A. jamaicensis in order to determine its potential role as a plant pollinator in the northern Yucatan Peninsula. We collected pollen from the fur of 192 individuals throughout the year from April 2004 to March 2005. We recorded pollen from nine plant species of eight families and found five unidentified pollen types, with the highest pollen species richness recorded in June. A. jamaicensis moved pollen of Erythrina standleyana and Mimosa bahamensis, which have not hitherto been reported as visited by this species. The most abundant pollen in the samples was found to be that of three tree species: Ceiba pentandra, C. aesculifolia and Lysiloma latisiliquum. Very few samples contained pollen in the rainy season, when the bats fed mainly on fruits. A. jamaicensis can fly several kilometres among foraging locations and dispersed large amounts of pollen from tree species growing near cenotes as well as those not present at cenotes but occurring in other forest fragments, highlighting its importance as a pollen vector among forest fragments in the largely deforested landscape of the Yucatan Peninsula, helping to reduce the negative effects of forest fragmentation. Ceiba appears to benefit from the role of A. jamaicensis as a pollen vector, and the species play an important ecological role in the Yucatan landscape, supplying shade, nectar and fruit for wildlife.

We investigated habitat use by the endemic Malagasy bat Hipposideros commersoni in evergreen littoral rainforest during the wet season in 2006, in order to better inform conservation guidelines. We used radiotracking to locate roosting and foraging sites. Roosts, typically 5.4 ± 0.2 m from the ground, were always occupied by single bats and were found on branches of trees with a diameter at breast height of 8.2 ± 0.7 cm. Home range size was 31.8 ± 9.2 ha for males and 41.7 ± 12.9 ha for females. Roosts were always located within the foraging areas and only five (5.4%) of the 91 located were situated outside the sheltered littoral forest. Foraging bats made greatest use of natural, sheltered littoral forest and relatively few foraging sorties occurred beyond the forest edge. Females were not trapped during January and may undergo local movements at that time. There are no known caves in the vicinity of the study area and H. commersoni roosted only on trees. Previous studies in Madagascar have highlighted the importance of caves for bats and we now extend this to include tree roosts, within the evergreen rainforest.

Background Flying foxes (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) are large bats that often roost in the sun, hence solar-powered GPS/GSM devices can track their movements over extended periods. The endemic Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger) has recently been subjected to large-scale culling because of perceived damage to commercial fruit, and a consequent reduction in numbers of > 50% since 2015 resulted in its IUCN Red List Status being up-listed to Endangered. Determining its movements will be important for management and conservation, for understanding potential responses to environmental change, and for understanding population admixture. Methods Twelve bats were tagged with solar-powered GPS/GSM devices in 2014–2016. Tags remained active for up to almost a year (maximum 359 days: average 139 days (males) and 93 days (females)), providing some of the longest-term data on the movement ecology of bats yet obtained. Eight bats were probably hunted illegally, highlighting the scale of unauthorised persecution. Results Males travelled on average 9 km each night, females 6 km. The nightly distance covered by adults of both sexes was higher in winter than in summer, though the opposite pattern occurred for immature males. These differences are probably related to seasonal changes in fruit availability (adults) and to dispersal by immature males. The maximum distance covered during one night was > 92 km. Home ranges of males averaged 74,633 ha, females 31,072 ha. Core foraging areas averaged 2222 ha for males, 1364 ha for females. Fifty roosts were identified, mainly in forest fragments. As the bats disperse seeds of native plants that form forest canopies, conservation of the bats will potentially maintain and enhance native forest cover, in turn providing roosting sites for the bats. Conclusions Solar-powered GSM tagging provides unprecedented potential for understanding the movement ecology of flying foxes. Mauritian flying foxes often move between the few remnant native forest fragments, which remain important for their conservation, and have potentially important roles in seed dispersal. Their nomadic movement fits with their panmictic genetic structure. Although their ability for long distance movements, sometimes over short timescales, permits rapid responses to local threats and environmental change, being restricted to Mauritius renders the bats extremely vulnerable to intense culling. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s40462-019-0156-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Adaptations for foraging in the complex airspaces of forest interiors may make bat species in the Asian tropics particularly susceptible to forest loss. However, ecomorphological analysis of Vietnamese bat assemblages challenges the hypothesis that, due to their greater vagility, cave-roosting bats are less vulnerable to habitat fragmentation than foliage-roosting species. Of the 13 most highly adapted forest-interior species in our study, eight were cave-roosting members of the Rhinolophidae and Hipposideridae and had wing morphologies closely resembling five foliage-roosting members of the Murininae and Kerivoulinae—species typically thought to have low vagility. Overall, both cave-roosting and foliage-roosting bats exhibited a wide range of flight indices and species' wing designs corresponded with preferred foraging habitats, suggesting that foraging strategy may outweigh roost preference as a determinant of bat wing morphology and flight performance. Consequently, where such variation occurs, cave-roosting bat ensembles are likely to include species with low vagility and similar sensitivity to habitat fragmentation. This could have important conservation implications as Asian karst formations support high cave densities and important bat diversity yet increasingly represent forest refugia in anthropogenic landscapes. We, therefore, advocate greater consideration of species vagility in determining conservation priorities for the region's bat fauna. Trừu Tượng Sự thich nghi với việc kiếm an dưới những tan rừng rậm rạp co thể khiến cho những loai dơi chuyen sống trong những canh rừng nhiệt đới ở Châu A rất de bị tổn thương trước tinh trạng mất rừng. Khi moi trường sống bị chia cắt, giả thuyết đặt ra la cac loai dơi chuyen lam tổ dưới tan rừng được xem co tinh linh hoạt thấp hơn sẽ de bị tac động hơn so với những loai dơi chuyen lam tổ trong hang động, song kết quả phân tich về hinh thai sinh thai của nhiều loai dơi ở Việt Nam lại cho kết quả khong giống vậy. Trong số 13 loai dơi chuyen kiếm an dưới tan rừng được nghien cứu, tam loai thuộc hai họ Rhinolophidae va Hipposideridae lam tổ trong hang động va co hinh thai canh tương tự với những loai chuyen lam tổ dưới tan cây thuộc hai phân họ Murininae va Kerivoulinae—những loai điển hinh co tinh linh hoạt thấp. Nhin chung, cac loai dơi lam tổ trong hang động hay dưới tan rừng đều co khoảng chỉ số bay va cấu tạo canh thay đổi, phu hợp với nơi kiếm an ưa thich, nen cach thức kiếm an co lẽ đong vai tro quan trọng hơn nơi lam tổ trong việc tạo hinh canh va phương thức bay của cac loai dơi. Sự hiện diện của những điều kể tren cho thấy cac đan dơi lam tổ trong hang động co thể bao gồm những loai co tinh linh hoạt thấp va cũng de bị tổn thương khi moi trường sống bị chia cắt. Thong tin nay co ý nghĩa quan trọng trong cong tac bảo tồn bởi vi cac khu vực co kiến tạo đa voi ở Châu A khong chỉ co nhiều hang động va chứa đựng mức độ đa dạng dơi cao ma con đong vai tro la nơi tru ngụ con sot lại của nhiều loai sống trong rừng tại những cảnh quan chịu sự tac động của con người. Do vậy, chung toi khuyến nghị cần phải tập trung nhiều hơn vao sự linh động của loai khi xac định những thứ tự ưu tien bảo tồn đối với cac loai dơi trong khu vực.

We studied the foraging behaviour of the dawn bat Eonycteris spelaea, a cave roosting nectarivore widespread in SE Asia, and principal pollinator of economically important crops. We radio-tracked 17 individuals for five to 19 nights over a three month period. The bats were from three cave colonies in agricultural habitats in southern Thailand. They traveled between one and 17.9 km ( ± SD: 4.4 km ± 5.07, median = 2.34) from their roosting cave to food sources. The mean home-range size of the individuals varied with the method used in its calculation from 518.4 ha (100% Minimum Convex Polygon, MCP) to 564.5 ha (100% Local Convex Hull method, LoCoH) and 460.8 ha (95% Kernel density estimation, KDE). The mean size of foraging areas used by the bats also varied according to the method of calculation from 14.26 ha (100% MCP), 13.25 ha (100% LoCoH) and 38.52 ha (95% KDE) and accounted for 21.9%, 20.08% and 40.5% of the respective home-range size. The bats foraged in one to three foraging areas each night. The gr...

Wildlife populations in Southeast Asia are subject to increasing pressure from climate change, habitat loss and human disturbance. Cave-roosting bats are particularly vulnerable to all three factors. Because of the ecological services they provide, it is important to assess specific vulnerabilities to inform their conservation management. We evaluated the reproductive phenology and body condition of Chaerephon plicatus for 14 months in 2015&ndash, 2016 and quantified guano harvesting at the largest colony in Cambodia in 2011&ndash, 2016. As in Thailand and Myanmar, two annual breeding cycles were recorded, characterized as continuous bimodal polyoestry, with parturition primarily occurring in April and October. Significant declines occurred in body condition between the late wet season and the late dry season, suggesting that bats experience increasing energetic stress as the dry season progresses. Annual guano harvests increased over the study period but could not be used as a proxy for monitoring population size due to the loss of unknown amounts during the wet season and unquantified movements of bats between C. plicatus colonies in the region. We recommend studies to determine the scale and drivers of such movements and creation of sustainable guano harvesting and population monitoring initiatives to ensure the conservation of C. plicatus colonies in Cambodia.

Here we expand our previous study to provide more detailed information on the relationship between the male eastern sucker-footed bat Myzopoda aurita and the traveler's tree Ravenala madagascariensis in south-eastern Madagascar, during six month-long field work sessions carried out over two years. We caught 593 bats, 229 newly caught and 364 recaptures, exclusively males, roosting in 37 day roosts in the partially unfurled central leaves of R. madagascariensis. No bats were found in any other roosting situation. To analyse potential roost availability, we monitored partially unfurled central leaves on R. madagascarienis on four transects and 12% appeared suitable as M. aurita roosts. These leaves took three to 25 days to unfurl, and roosts became available between one and 19 days after unfurling commenced. Day roosts were occupied for one to 12 days. Bats were more likely to occupy roosts in taller trees. The size of roosting groups varied between one and 36 individuals. Movements of bats between roosts w...

Eonycteris spelaea is recognized as the principal pollinator of most chiropterophilous plants in SE Asia. The present study describes its feeding behaviour and clarifies its role in cross pollinating these highly self-incompatible plants. Ten individuals of E. spelaea were radio-tracked during the flowering period of durian ( Durio zibethinus ) and petai ( Parkia speciosa ) in an agricultural mosaic in southern Thailand. Eonycteris spelaea makes a mean of seven visits per hour to these trees and 80-86% of each feeding bout involves visits to multiple conspecific trees. During each visit, 93% of D. zibethinus stigmas and 50% of P. speciosa stigmas were loaded with conspecific pollen. Eonycteris spelaea was the most common bat visitor to the trees. High visitation frequency and conspecific pollen deposition by E. spelaea to D. zibethinus and P. speciosa indicates that this nectarivorous bat is an effective pollinator. Mixed planting of chiropterophilous trees in fruit orchards is recommended to ensure regular visits of E. spelaea . Protecting natural roost caves of E. spelaea is also essential in order to maintain the vital ecosystem service provided by these bats.

The time of emergence of bats from their roosts at dusk and their return was originally described as a circadian rhythm entrained by the time of sunset and sunrise (Erkert 1978). Later, various environmental factors such as ambient light conditions, weather (Frick et al. 2012) and moonlight (Elangovan and Marimuthu 2001; Thies et al. 2006) were considered to influence bat activity. Bats emerging before dark or during bright moonlight in­ creases their risk of predation by raptorial birds and they avoid such situations (Welbergen 2006). However insecti­ vorous bats often risk predation to increase foraging opportunities when their prey is available in abundance at dusk (Jones and Rydell 1994; Rydell et al. 1996; Duverge et al. 2000). Besides environmental factors, foraging efforts differ between male and female mammals according to the energetic requirements of reproduction (Bronson 1985). Breeding females allocate more time and energy to for­ aging to meet the energy demands of growing pups (McCracken and Wilkinson 2000; Racey and Entwistle 2000; Barclay and Harder 2003). In contrast, reproduc­ tive males spend time and energy in defending females or resources useful to them in order to achieve mating suc­ cess with multiple females (Clutton­Brock 1989). In fruit bats, roost emergence and return times of adult males often differ compared with other reproductive categories, especially during the breeding period. For example, adult males of Old World tent­making (e.g., Cynopterus sphinx) and cavity roosting fruit bats (e.g., Balionycteris maculata) spend less time away from the roost for­ aging and more time at the roost (Balasingh et al. 1995; Marimuthu et al. 1998; Hodgkison et al. 2003). Adult male Rousettus aegyptiacus and Pteropus tonganus emerge after adult females (Korine et al. 1994; Banack and Grant 2003). Similar patterns were found in neotropical fruit bats such as Artibeus jamaicensis (Morrison and Morrison 1981) and A. lituratus (Munoz­Romo et al. 2008). In Southeast Asia, Eonycteris spelaea roosts in caves and travels over tens of kilometres to access food sources (Start 1974). It is the principal pollinator of economi­ cally important crops like durian (Durio zibethinus), a leguminous canopy tree Parkia spp. and the Indian trumpet flower (Oroxylum indicum) in managed agri­ cultural habitats in southern Thailand (Bumrungsri et al. 2008, 2009; Srithongchuay et al. 2008). Eonycteris spelaea reproduces year round (Beck and Lim 1973; Bhat et al. 1980; Heideman and Utzurrum 2003). In a previous study, a capture survey at a cave entrance suggested a high proportion of mature males return during the early hours of the night (Bumrungsri et al. 2013). We investigated the emergence and return time of the dawn nectar bat, E. spelaea, using radio­telemetry to record the time of cave emergence and return by E. spelaea of known sex and reproductive status. We hy­ pothesized differential foraging durations between adult male E. spelaea and other reproductive categories.

Bats play an important role in ecosystems and are highly relevant as indicators of environmental change. Long-term monitoring of bat populations is therefore fundamental to verifying environmental change over time. Although in the past, significant declines in bat populations have been reported across Europe, only limited data are available from systematic monitoring schemes over long periods. In this study we use data from the National Bat Monitoring Programme, a citizen science scheme drawing on over 3500 volunteers, to estimate changes in populations across Great Britain for 10 bat species or species groups between 1997 and 2012. We demonstrate uniquely how data collected on relative abundance and activity of bats by volunteers at 3272 sites using standardised, multiple survey methods (counts at roosts and bat detector surveys using tuneable, heterodyne detectors) can be successfully utilised to produce statistically robust population indices for a large proportion of a country’s bat fauna. All trends calculated, with the exception of one species (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum), had sufficient power to detect Red Alert level declines. Our results reveal a generally favourable picture for bats over the monitoring period; all species showed a stable or increasing trend from at least one survey type, although for four species where there were multiple trends from different survey types, the trend directions did not agree (Myotis nattereri, Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Pipistrellus pygmaeus and Eptesicus serotinus). This study demonstrates that use of volunteer programmes can be successful in monitoring bat populations, provided that key features including standardised survey methods and volunteer training are incorporated. Some species that are more difficult to detect and identify may however require specialist surveillance techniques.

Long-distance seed dispersal can be important for the regeneration of forested habitats, especially in regions where deforestation has been severe. Old World fruit bats (Pteropodidae) have considerable potential for long-distance seed dispersal. We studied the movement patterns and feeding behaviour of the endemic Madagascan flying fox Pteropus rufus, in Berenty Reserve, southeast Madagascar. Between July and September 2012 (the dry season) nine males and six females were tagged with customised GPS loggers which recorded fixes every 2.5 min between 18.00 and 06.00 h. The combined home range of all of the tagged bats during 86 nights exceeded 58,000 ha. Females had larger home ranges and core foraging areas and foraged over longer distances (average 28.1 km; median 26.7 km) than males (average 15.4 km; median 9.5 km). Because the study was conducted during the gestation period, the increased energy requirements of females may explain their greater mean foraging area. Compositional analysis revealed that bats show strong preferences for overgrown sisal (Agave sisalana) plantations (a mix of shrub, trees and sisal plants) and remnant riverside forest patches. Sisal nectar and pollen were abundant food sources during the tracking period and this probably contributed to the selective use of overgrown sisal plantations. The bats also ate large quantities of figs (Ficus grevei) during the study, and dispersed seeds of this important pioneer species. The bats flew at an average speed of 9.13 m/s, perhaps to optimise gliding performance. The study confirms that P. rufus has the potential to be a long-distance seed disperser, and is able to fly over a large area, often crossing cleared parts of its habitat. It potentially plays an important role in the regeneration of threatened forest habitats in this biodiversity hotspot.

The use of different roost types by Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii) during reproduction was investigated in two adjacent river valleys in northeastern Scotland. Forty-six individuals from six colonies were radiotracked during the summers of 2004–2006. The frequency of roost switching varied with reproductive status, and was lowest in lactating females and highest in non-reproductive females, which changed roosts on average once every 5.0 and 1.5 days, respectively. Although Daubenton's bats regularly switched roosts, strong faithfulness to the roosting area was apparent regardless of whether they formed maternity colonies in trees or buildings. Although most roosts found at both study areas were in trees, lactating females and juveniles in one valley roosted only in trees whereas in the other they roosted exclusively in buildings, in which ambient temperatures were significantly higher. The implications of roosting habits for the transmission of European bat lyssavirus are discussed.

Seed dispersal plays a significant role in forest regeneration and maintenance. Flying foxes are often posited as effective long-distance seed dispersers due to their large home ranges and ability to disperse seeds when flying. We evaluate the importance of the Madagascan flying fox Pteropus rufus in the maintenance and regeneration of forests in one of the world's priority conservation areas. We tested germination success of over 20,000 seeds from the figs Ficus polita, F. grevei and F. lutea extracted from bat faeces and ripe fruits under progressively more natural conditions, ranging from petri-dishes to outdoor environments. Seeds from all fig species showed increased germination success after passing through the bats' digestive tracts. Outside, germination success in F. polita was highest in faecal seeds grown under semi-shaded conditions, and seeds that passed through bats showed increased seedling establishment success. We used data from feeding trials and GPS tracking to construct seed shadow maps to visualize seed dispersal patterns. The models use Gaussian probability density functions to predict the likelihood of defecation events occurring after feeding. In captivity, bats had short gut retention times (often < 30 mins), but were sometimes able to retain seeds for over 24h. In the wild, bats travelled 3-5 km within 24-280 min after feeding, when defecation of ingested seeds is very likely. They produced extensive seed shadows (11 bats potentially dispersing seeds over 58,000 ha over 45 total days of tracking) when feeding on figs within their large foraging areas and dispersed the seeds in habitats that were often partially shaded and hence would facilitate germination up to 20 km from the feeding tree. Because figs are important pioneer species, P. rufus is an important dispersal vector that makes a vital contribution to the regeneration and maintenance of highly fragmented forest patches in Madagascar.

Capsule: Varied Tits Poecile varia learned vocalizations in the first few weeks of their life. Night-sleep affected the development of vocal learning in Varied Tits. Aims: We aimed to quantify the sensitive period of song learning and to examine the effects of sleep on song development in Varied Tits, an endemic forest songbird in East Asia. Methods: Song development in Varied Tits was investigated in the first 90 days following hatching. The effect of night-sleep on birdsong learning was examined by analysing and comparing the song structure in the evening and the next morning. Results: We found that most individuals began to sing a subsong from 15 days of age and acquired mature song at about 53 days. The sensitive period of song learning in Varied Tits was from 25 to 53 days after hatching. There were significant and positive correlations between maximum frequency and vocal changes before and after night-sleep. Conclusion: Our findings uncover the timings and processes of song development, and highlight the importance of the sensitive period in birdsong development in wild birds.

International audience; 1. Undersampling is commonplace in biodiversity surveys of species-rich tropical assemblages in which rare taxa abound, with possible repercussions for our ability to implement surveys and monitoring programmes in a cost-effective way. 2. We investigated the consequences of information loss due to species undersampling (missing subsets of species from the full species pool) in tropical bat surveys for the emerging patterns of species richness (SR) and compositional variation across sites. 3. For 27 bat assemblage data sets from across the tropics, we used correlations between original data sets and subsets with different numbers of species deleted either at random, or according to their rarity in the assemblage, to assess to what extent patterns in SR and composition in data subsets are congruent with those in the initial data set. We then examined to what degree high sample representativeness (r ≥ 0 8) was influenced by biogeographic region, sampling method, sampling effort or structural assemblage characteristics. 4. For SR, correlations between random subsets and original data sets were strong (r ≥ 0 8) with moderate (ca. 20%) species loss. Bias associated with information loss was greater for species composition; on average ca. 90% of species in random subsets had to be retained to adequately capture among-site variation. For non random subsets, removing only the rarest species (on average c. 10% of the full data set) yielded strong correlations (r > 0 95) for both SR and composition. Eliminating greater proportions of rare species resulted in weaker correlations and large variation in the magnitude of observed correlations among data sets. 5. Species subsets that comprised ca. 85% of the original set can be considered reliable surrogates, capable of adequately revealing patterns of SR and temporal or spatial turnover in many tropical bat assemblages. Our analyses thus demonstrate the potential as well as limitations for reducing survey effort and streamlining sampling protocols, and consequently for increasing the cost-effectiveness in tropical bat surveys or monitoring programmes. The dependence of the performance of species subsets on structural assemblage characteristics (total assemblage abundance, proportion of rare species), however, underscores the importance of adaptive monitoring schemes and of establishing surrogate performance on a site by site basis based on pilot surveys.

Extra-pair paternity is of particular interest in socially monogamous species, in which there is a substantial discrepancy between social and genetic mating systems. Varied Tits Poecile varius are socially monogamous passerine birds with a distribution in Japan, Korea, and northeast China. We established paternity in all individuals of 40 broods by microsatellite genotyping. Extra-pair paternity occurred in 16 of the 40 broods (40%) and accounted for about 14.7% (37/251) of offspring, higher than the average value (11%) among socially monogamous birds. The relatedness between social partners did not correlate with the percentage of extra-pair offspring in the brood and there was no difference in heterozygosity between maternal half-siblings. As the first such investigation in this species, this study adds to our understanding of their mating system and will be useful for comparative studies of variations in extra-pair paternity rate.

Natterer's bat Myotis nattereri is one of the least known European bats. Understanding its patterns of movement between roosts is an important aspect of assessing the relative value of different types of roost for conservation of the species. We determined patterns of movement of Natterer's bat between roosts by radio-tracking successive animals from the same colonies during summer (May to September). For one maternity colony comprising 65 adult females, the attic of a large mediaeval church was the main roost site, accounting for 88% of radio-located bat days. The two other maternity colonies tracked comprised about 35 adult females each and used from 15 to 25 roost sites, some containing multiple roosts. For these two colonies, up to six roost sites per colony accounted for about 80% of bat occupancy days in any one summer and for each colony, roost home ranges for roosts used by subgroups of at least two bats together covered 0.4 km2. Although bats made frequent movements between roosts there was no apparent interchange between adjacent colonies and no overlap in the range used by adjacent colonies. Bats changed roosts every 3.0 days on average, moving 510 m (median) to an alternative roost. They departed late and returned early to roosts. Colonies assembled or disintegrated into larger or smaller groups occupying diverse roosts during summer, but there was high social cohesion between colony members. Bats that separated into subgroups from mid-summer (mid-July) onwards later roosted together again. Natterer's bat exhibits high behavioural flexibility in the type of roosts used: of two adjacent maternity colonies, one used mostly tree roosts and the other mostly buildings. However, both roosted mainly in roofs during early summer (late May to mid-July). Tree roosts were significantly preferred to those in buildings when ambient external maximum temperatures were ≥ 30°C or mean temperatures fell below 14°C. Natterer's bat appears to depend on the availability of a number of roosts of different types. Parturition roosts, roosts in heavily timbered barns and roosts within core roosting areas, potentially up to 1.2 km distant from the parturition roost, should have highest conservation priority but conservation management should guard against any roost loss.

The diet of E. spelaea was determined for bats captured monthly between June 2002-June 2003 at a cave entrance in Songkhla Province, Southern Thailand. Faecal analysis and pollen collected from the bats’ fur were used to identify the plant species ingested. From 1,155 diet records from 506 samples, at least eleven plant taxa were identified. Individual bats feed on flowers of up to six plant species each night. Parkia spp. (34%) and Musa spp. (28%) have the highest percentage frequency followed by Eugenia spp. (9.4%), Oroxylum indicum (6.4%), Durio zibethinus (6.2%), Ceiba pentandra (5.5%), Sonneratia spp. (5.2%), while Cocos nucifera and an unknown plant species, made up a minor proportion (

Bat hunting for consumption as bushmeat and medicine is widespread and affects at least 167 species of bats (or c. 13 % of the world’s bat species), in Africa, Asia, across the islands of Oceania, and to a lesser extent in Central and South America. Hunting is particularly prevalent among the large-bodied fruit bats of the Old World tropics, where half (50 %, 92/183) the extant species in the family Pteropodidae are hunted. Pteropodids that are hunted are six times more likely to be Red Listed as threatened: 66 % of species in IUCN threatened categories (CR, EN, VU, NT), compared to 11 % of species in the ‘Least Concern’ (LC) category. However, there still appears to be an information gap at the international level. One third of the hunted species on the Red List are not considered threatened by that hunting, and nearly a quarter of the bat species included in this review are not listed as hunted in IUCN Red List species accounts. This review has resulted in a comprehensive list of hunted bats that doubles the number of species known from either the IUCN Red List species accounts or a questionnaire circulated in 2004. More research is needed on the impacts of unregulated hunting, as well as on the sustainability of regulated hunting programs. In the absence of population size and growth data, legislators and managers should be precautionary in their attitude towards hunting. Roost site protection should be a priority as it is both logistically simpler than patrolling bat foraging grounds and reduces the comparatively larger scale mortality and stress that hunting at the roost can cause. Education and awareness campaigns within local communities should demonstrate how bats are a limited resource and emphasize characteristics (nocturnal, slow reproducing and colonial) that make them particularly vulnerable to hunting pressure.

Pteropodid bats damage a wide range of fruit crops, exacerbated by continuing loss of their natural food as forests are cleared. In some countries where such damage occurs, bats are not legally protected. In others, as a result of pressure from fruit growers, legal protection is either not implemented or overridden by legislation specifically allowing the killing of bats. Lethal control is generally ineffective and often carried out with shotguns making it an animal welfare issue, as many more animals are injured or orphaned than are killed. Here, we review the literature and current state of the conflict between fruit growers and pteropodids and describe a wide range of potential mitigation techniques. We compile an extensive list of bats and the fruit crops on which they feed where this has resulted in conflicts, or could lead to conflict, with fruit growers. We also discuss the legal status of bats in some countries where such conflicts occur. We found the most effective means of preventing bat damage to crops is the use of fixed nets (that generally prevent entanglement) covering a whole orchard. Netting individual trees, or fruit panicles, using small net bags, is also effective. Management methods that assist netting include pruning to maintain low stature of trees. These exclusion techniques are the best management options considering both conservation and public health issues. Although lights, sonic and ultrasonic noises, noxious smells and tastes have been used to deter bats from eating fruit, there have been no large-scale systematic trials of their effectiveness. Nevertheless, broadcasting the sound of discharging shotguns followed by the sound of wounded bats has proved effective in Australia. The use of decoy fruit trees is the least investigated method of mitigation and requires detailed knowledge of the natural diet of the bat species involved. The few studies of dietary preferences undertaken to date suggest that bats prefer non-commercial fruit when it is available, and we highlight this as an area for future research.

Caves and other subterranean sites such as mines are critical to the survival of hundreds of bat species worldwide, since they often provide shelter for most of a nation’s bat fauna. In the temperate zone, caves provide roosts for hibernation and for some species, breeding in summer, whereas in warmer regions, they support high species richness year round and enormous colonies that maintain substantial ecosystem services. Due to the solubility of the substrate, the highest densities of caves occur in karst landscapes. Given their importance for bats, relatively few studies have investigated factors involved in cave selection, although current evidence suggests that the density and size of caves are the best predictors of species diversity and population sizes. Thermal preferences have been established for some cave-dwelling species as well as their vulnerability to disturbance, particularly during hibernation and reproduction. Growth in limestone quarrying and cave tourism industries worldwide severely threatens cave-dwelling bats, in addition to loss of foraging habitat, hunting for bushmeat, incidental disturbance and disruptive guano harvesting. Apparent declines of cave bats in Europe and North America also pose serious concerns, as do global climate change predictions. The main conservation response to threats to cave bats in these continents has been gating, but this remains relatively untested as a means of protecting colonies in other regions. Research on sustainable harvesting of bats as bushmeat and their responses to different types of human disturbance at caves and loss of surrounding foraging habitats is required. More caves of outstanding importance for bats at national and international levels also require protection.

Conservation networks link diverse actors, either individuals or groups, across space and time. Such networks build social capital, enhance coordination, and lead to effective conservation action. Bat conservation can benefit from network approaches because the taxonomic and ecological diversity of bats, coupled with the complexity of the threats they face, necessitates a wide range of expert knowledge to effect conservation. Moreover, many species and issues transcend political boundaries, so conservation frequently requires or benefits from international cooperation. In response, several regional bat conservation networks have arisen in recent years, and we suggest that, with the globalization of threats to bats, there is now a need for a global network to strengthen bat conservation and provide a unified voice for advocacy. To retain regional autonomy and identity, we advocate a global network of the regional networks and develop a roadmap toward such a meta-network using a social network framework. We first review the structure and function of existing networks and then suggest ways in which existing networks might be strengthened. We then discuss how regional gaps in global coverage might best be filled, before suggesting ways in which regional networks might be linked for global coverage.

Bats constitute a substantial proportion of mammal diversity within the Asian tropics and subtropics and are particularly susceptible to population losses associated with human activities. This poses a conservation concern in Asian karst areas which support high bat species diversity, yet are experiencing habitat loss and degradation and increasing pressure from tourism and extractive industries. As disturbance during crucial reproductive periods (late pregnancy, lactation and weaning) threatens reproductive success, we investigated the reproductive phenology of a bat assemblage at two karst sites in North Vietnam. Our results indicate that the timing of major reproductive events coincides among two cave-dwelling pteropodids, and among 26 cave and foliage dwelling rhinolophids, hipposiderids and vespertilionids. March–July is the primary reproductive period for all insectivorous species sampled, and protection of maternity roosts during this time is critical. Reproduction in cave-dwelling pteropodids span...

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is a newly emergent disease that potentially threatens all temperate bat species. A recently identified fungus, Geomyces destructans, is the most likely causative agent of this disease. Until 2009, WNS and G. destructans were exclusively known from North America, but recent studies have confirmed this fungus is also present in Europe. We assembled an international WNS consortium of 67 scientists from 29 countries and identified the most important research and conservation priorities to assess the risk of WNS to European bats. Here, we review what is known about WNS and G. destructans and detail the conservation and research recommendations aimed at understanding and containing this emerging infectious disease.

Wildlife meat is an important source of animal protein for rural and urban populations in Congo. Quantitative and qualitative surveys on the consumption of bushmeat were undertaken in Brazzaville in 2006, in about 1,050 urban households. The main objective was to establish the profiles of consumers and of species concerned. The results showed that 88.3% of the surveyed households consumed bushmeat. Their average size was 5.7 ± 3.2 persons. The average monthly income of an urban consumer with a permanent job was 98,334 (US$197) ± 84,306 (US$169) FCFA. It appeared that households preferred to consume bushmeat for two major reasons: the taste or flavor (67.8%) and food habits (14.7%). Meat from mammals was preferred, the top three orders of this class being artiodactyls (48.3%), rodents (28.3%), and primates (13.0%). Some of them are listed as threatened in Congo Brazzaville and are included in the IUCN Red List. The results showed that in Brazzaville, bushmeat consumption remains important and is determined by socio-economic parameters. The promotion of game farming, and breeding of domestic species such as poultry and fish, in the Brazzaville suburbs could help to meet Congolese demand for bushmeat

Summary 1. Species richness is a state variable of some interest in monitoring programmes but raw species counts are often biased due to imperfect species detectability. Therefore, monitoring programmes should quantify detectability for target taxa to assess whether it varies over temporal or spatial scales. We assessed the potential for tropical bat monitoring programmes to reliably estimate trends in species richness. 2. Using data from 25 bat assemblages from the Old and New World tropics, we estimated detectability for all species in an assemblage (mean proportion of species detected per sampling plot) and for individual species (species-specific detectability). We further assessed how these estimates of detectability were affected by external sources of variation relating to time, space, survey effort and biological traits. 3. The mean proportion of species detected across 96 sampling plots was estimated at 0AE76 (range 0AE57–1AE00) and was significantly greater for phytophagous than for animalivorous species. Species

We studied the diet, habitat use and biology of Rousettus madagascariensis, a relatively small (∼55–77 g) fruit bat endemic to Madagascar, between July 2004 and May 2005. Faecal analysis revealed few seeds in the diet, suggesting that the bats either feed extensively on nectar, flowers and leaves or on fruits with seeds too large to ingest. However, bats were captured near fruiting Ficus sp. inside relatively intact forest and Ficus sp. seeds were found in the faeces during March and April. Defecated Ficus rubra seeds germinated significantly faster than seeds from ripe fruits under controlled conditions, but germination rates were similar. Radio tracking and observations of light-tagged individuals revealed that R. madagascariensis travelled a straight line distance of at least 8 km between the roost and feeding locations, with round trip foraging routes of up to 27 km. Most juveniles were trapped between March and July and we infer that weaning of young started before 8 weeks of age. The features used to distinguish juveniles from adults were no longer evident in December and it appears therefore that R. madagascariensis reaches somatic maturity within a single year. Pregnancy, lactation and weaning in this species coincide with the austral summer when food availability is higher.