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Inspired by the adaptability of biological materials, a variety of synthetic, chemically driven self-assembly processes have been developed that result in the transient formation of supramolecular structures. These structures form through two simultaneous reactions, forward and backward, which generate and consume a molecule that undergoes self-assembly. The dynamics of these assembly processes have been shown to differ from conventional thermodynamically stable molecular assemblies. However, the evolution of nanoscale morphologies in chemically driven self-assembly and how they compare to conventional assemblies has not been resolved. Here, we use a chemically driven redox system to separately carry out the forward and backward reactions. We analyze the forward and backward reactions both sequentially and synchronously with time-resolved cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryoEM). Quantitative image analysis shows that the synchronous process is more complex and heterogeneous than the sequential process. Our key finding is that a thermodynamically unstable stacked nanorod phase, briefly observed in the backward reaction, is sustained for ∼6 hours in the synchronous process. Kinetic Monte Carlo modeling show that the synchronous process is driven by multiple cycles of assembly and disassembly. The collective data suggest that chemically driven self-assembly can create sustained morphologies not seen in thermodynamically stable assemblies by kinetically stabilizing transient intermediates. This finding provides plausible design principles to develop and optimize supramolecular materials with novel properties.

Polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) has become an important one pot method for the preparation of well-defined block copolymer nanoparticles. In PISA, morphology is typically controlled by changing molecular architecture and polymer concentration. However, several computational and experimental studies have suggested that changes in polymerization rate can lead to morphological differences. Here, we demonstrate that catalyst selection can be used to control morphology independent of polymer structure and concentration in ring-opening polymerization-induced crystallization-driven self-assembly (ROPI-CDSA). Slower rates of polymerization give rise to slower rates of self-assembly, resulting in denser lamellae and more 3D structures when compared to faster rates of polymerization. Our explanation for this is that the fast samples transiently exist in a nonequilibrium state as self-assembly starts at a higher solvophobic block length when compared to the slow polymerization. We expect that subsequent examples of rate variation in PISA will allow for greater control over morphological outcome.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous nanomaterials that have been extensively studied as enzyme immobilization substrates. During in situ immobilization, MOF nucleation is driven by biomolecules with low isoelectric points. Investigation of how biomolecules control MOF self-assembly mechanisms on the molecular level is key to designing nanomaterials with desired physical and chemical properties. Here, we demonstrate how molecular modifications of bovine serum albumin (BSA) with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) can affect MOF crystal size, morphology, and encapsulation efficiency. Final crystal properties are characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), fluorescent microscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy. To probe MOF self-assembly, in situ experiments were performed using cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Biophysical characterization of BSA and FITC-BSA was performed using ζ potential, mass spectrometry, circular dichroism studies, fluorescence spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The combined data reveal that protein folding and stability within amorphous precursors are contributing factors in the rate, extent, and mechanism of crystallization. Thus, our results suggest molecular modifications as promising methods for fine-tuning protein@MOFs' nucleation and growth.

Fuel-driven dissipative self-assemblies play essential roles in living systems, contributing both to their complex, dynamic structures and emergent functions. Several dissipative supramolecular materials have been created using chemicals or light as fuel. However, electrical energy, one of the most common energy sources, has remained unexplored for such purposes. Here, we demonstrate a new platform for creating active supramolecular materials using electrically fueled dissipative self-assembly. Through an electrochemical redox reaction network, a transient and highly active supramolecular assembly is achieved with rapid kinetics, directionality, and precise spatiotemporal control. As electronic signals are the default information carriers in modern technology, the described approach offers a potential opportunity to integrate active materials into electronic devices for bioelectronic applications.

The antibiotic teixobactin targets bacterial cell walls. Previous research has proposed that the active form of teixobactin is a nano-/micron-sized supramolecular assembly. Here, we use cryogenic transmission electron microscopy to show that at 1 mg/mL, teixobactin forms sheet-like assemblies that selectively act upon the cell wall. At 4 μg/mL, teixobactin is active, and aggregates are formed either transiently or sparingly at the cell surface.

Fuel-driven dissipative supramolecular assemblies in biology, such as actin filaments and microtubules contribute to the formation of complex, dynamic structures in living organisms and give rise to emergent functions such as motility, homeostasis, self-healing, and camouflage. Several synthetic dissipative supramolecular materials have been created using chemicals or light as fuel, with the goal of furthering our understanding of biological systems and creating synthetic materials that have life-like dynamic properties. However, electrical energy, one of the most common energy sources, has remained mostly unexplored for such purposes. Here we demonstrate the use of electrically fueled dissipative assembly as a new platform for creating active supramolecular materials. Through an electrochemical redox reaction network operating in mild aqueous buffers, a transient and highly active supramolecular assembly based on a redox-sensitive cysteine derivative is achieved by applying an electric potential. The dissipative self-assembly as well as its emergent properties can be spatiotemporally controlled by modulation of electrical signals on patterned microelectrodes. Using electrical energy as a readily available and clean fuel, we are able to create dissipative supramolecular materials rapidly (in seconds to minutes) and repetitively under mild conditions with directional and spatiotemporal control. As electronic signals are the default information carriers in modern technology, the described approach offers a promising opportunity to integrate active materials into electronic devices for bioelectronics applications.

In highly selective solvents, block copolymers (BCPs) form association colloids, while in solvents with poor selectivity, they exhibit a temperature-controlled (de)mixing behavior. Herein, it is shown that a temperature-responsive self-assembly behavior emerges in solvent mixtures of intermediate selectivity. A biocompatible poly-ethylene(oxide)-block-poly-ε-caprolactone (PEO-PCL) BCP is used as a model system. The polymer is dissolved in solvent mixtures containing water (a strongly selective solvent for PEO) and ethanol (a poorly selective solvent for PEO) to tune the solvency conditions. Using synchrotron X-ray scattering, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy, it is shown that a rich temperature-responsive behavior can be achieved in certain solvent mixtures. Crystallization of the PCL block enriches the phase behavior of the BCP by promoting sphere-to-cylinder morphology transitions at low temperatures. Increasing the water fraction in the solvent causes a suppression of the sphere-to-cylinder morphology transition. These results open up the possibility to induce temperature-responsive properties on demand in a wide range of BCP systems.

The self-assembly of block copolymers into 1D, 2D and 3D nano- and microstructures is of great interest for a wide range of applications. A key challenge in this field is obtaining independent control over molecular structure and hierarchical structure in all dimensions using scalable one-pot chemistry. Here we report on the ring opening polymerization-induced crystallization-driven self-assembly (ROPI-CDSA) of poly-L-lactide-block-polyethylene glycol block copolymers into 1D, 2D and 3D nanostructures. A key feature of ROPI-CDSA is that the polymerization time is much shorter than the self-assembly relaxation time, resulting in a non-equilibrium self-assembly process. The self-assembly mechanism is analyzed by cryo-transmission electron microscopy, wide-angle x-ray scattering, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and turbidity studies. The analysis revealed that the self-assembly mechanism is dependent on both the polymer molecular structure and concentration. Knowledge of the self-assembly mechanism enabled the kinetic trapping of multiple hierarchical structures from a single block copolymer.

Innovations in liquid-phase electron microscopy (LP-EM) have made it possible to perform experiments at the optimized conditions needed to examine soft matter. The main obstacle is conducting experiments in such a way that electron beam radiation can be used to obtain answers for scientific questions without changing the structure and (bio)chemical processes in the sample due to the influence of the radiation. By overcoming these experimental difficulties at least partially, LP-EM has evolved into a new microscopy method with nanometer spatial resolution and sub-second temporal resolution for analysis of soft matter in materials science and biology. Both experimental design and applications of LP-EM for soft matter materials science and biological research are reviewed, and a perspective of possible future directions is given.

A prospective observational cohort of 20 primary total hip arthroplasty (n = 12) and total knee arthroplasty (n = 8) patients (mean age: 63 ± 6 years) was passively monitored with a consumer-level wearable activity sensor before and 6 weeks after surgery. Patients were clustered by minimal change or decreased activity using sensor data. Decreased postoperative activity was associated with greater pain reduction (-5.5 vs -2.0, P = .03). All patients surpassed minimal clinical benefit thresholds of total joint arthroplasty (TJA) (Hip Disability and Osteoarthritis Score Junior 30.5 vs 20.8, P = .23; Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score Junior 23.3 vs 18.2, P = .77) within 6 weeks. Patients who objectively "take it easy" after TJA may experience less pain with no difference in early subjective outcome. Remote, passive analysis of outpatient wearable sensor data may permit real-time detection of early problems after TJA.

Natural materials, such as collagen, can assemble with multiple levels of organization in solution. Achieving a similar degree of control over morphology, stability and hierarchical organization with equilibrium synthetic materials remains elusive. For the assembly of peptidic materials the process is controlled by a complex interplay between hydrophobic interactions, electrostatics and secondary structure formation. Consequently, fine tuning the thermodynamics and kinetics of assembly remains extremely challenging. Here, we synthesized a set of block co polypeptides with varying hydrophobicity and ability to form secondary structure. From this set we select a sequence with balanced interactions that results in the formation of high-aspect ratio thermodynamically favored nanotubes, stable between pH 2 and 12 and up to 80 °C. This stability permits their hierarchical assembly into bundled nanotube fibers by directing the pH and inducing complementary zwitterionic charge behavior. This block co-polypeptide design strategy, using defined sequences, provides a straightforward approach to creating complex hierarchical peptide-based assemblies with tunable interactions.

Stimuli responsive polymers are an efficient means of targeted therapy.  Compared to conventional agents, they increase bioavailability and efficacy.  In particular, polymer hydrogel nanoparticles (NPs) can be designed to respond when exposed to a specific environmental stimulus such as pH or temperature. However, targeting a specific metabolite as the trigger for stimuli response could further elevate selectivity and create a new class of bioresponsive materials.  In this work we describe an N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAm) NP that responds to a specific metabolite characteristic of a hypoxic environment found in cancerous tumors.  NIPAm NPs were synthesized by copolymerization with an oxamate derivative, a known inhibitor of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH).  The oxamate functionalized NPs (OxNP) efficiently sequestered LDH to produce an OxNP-protein complex.  When exposed to elevated concentrations of lactic acid, a substrate of LDH and a metabolite characteristic of hypoxic tumor microenvironments, OxNP-LDH complexes swelled (65%).  The OxNP-LDH complexes were not responsive to structurally related small molecules.  This work demonstrates a proof of concept for tuning NP responsiveness by conjugation with a key protein to target a specific metabolite of disease.

Maintaining membrane integrity is a challenge at extreme temperatures. Biochemical synthesis of membrane-spanning lipids is one adaptation that organisms such as thermophilic archaea have evolved to meet this challenge and preserve vital cellular function at high temperatures. The molecular-level details of how these tethered lipids affect membrane dynamics and function, however, remain unclear. Using synthetic monolayer-forming lipids with transmembrane tethers, here, we reveal that lipid tethering makes membrane permeation an entropically controlled process that helps to limit membrane leakage at elevated temperatures relative to bilayer-forming lipid membranes. All-atom molecular dynamics simulations support a view that permeation through membranes made of tethered lipids reduces the torsional entropy of the lipids and leads to tighter lipid packing, providing a molecular interpretation for the increased transition-state entropy of leakage.

The solubilization of lyophobic compounds in block copolymer micelles has been extensively investigated but remains only partially understood. There is a need to understand the fundamental parameters that determine the spatial distribution of the solubilized compounds within the micelles. Controlling this feature is a key aspect in the design of drug delivery systems with tailored release properties. Using Scheutjens-Fleer self-consistent field (SF-SCF) computations, we found that solubilization is regulated by a complex interplay between enthalpic and entropic contributions and that the spatial distribution can be controlled by the concentration and solubility of the guest compound in the dispersion medium. Upon solubilization, a characteristic change in size and mass of the micelles is predicted. This can be used as a fingerprint to indirectly assess the spatial distribution. Based on these findings, we developed two experimental protocols to control and assess the spatial distribution of lyophobic compounds within block copolymer micelles.

Data from wearable technology may correlate with patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs). The objective of this prospective pilot study of 22 total joint arthroplasty patients was to determine if sensor-generated data are predictive of short-term PROMs in total joint arthroplasty. Data on "average daily step count" and "average daily minutes active" were generated by the provided wearable sensor preoperatively and up to 6 weeks postoperatively. PROMs were collected preoperatively and at 6 weeks postoperatively. Changes in PROMs were calculated as "Δ". Linear regression of the sensor data and PROMs generated R2 values. Changes in the average daily step count from preop to 6-week postop strongly associated with changes in Veterans Rand 12 Physical Component Score (R2 = 0.4532) from preop to 6 weeks. Changes in average daily minutes active from preop to 6-weeks postop were strongly associated with ΔHOOS/KOOS (R2 = 0.4858).