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The binding of adenosine 5’-triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine 5’-monophosphate (AMP) to adenylate kinase (AdK) drives closure of lids over the substrate adenosyl groups. We test the hypothesis that this conformational change activates AdK for catalysis. The rate constants for Homo sapiens adenylate kinase 1 (HsAdK1)-catalyzed phosphoryl group transfer to AMP, k(cat)/K(m) = 7.0 x 10(6) M(−1) s(−1), and phosphite dianion, (k(HPi))(obs) ≤ 1 x 10(−4) M(−1) s(−1), show that the binding energy of the adenosyl group effects a ≥7.0 x 10(10)-fold rate acceleration of phosphoryl transfer from ATP. The third-order rate constant of k(cat)/K(HPi)K(EA) = 260 M(−2) s(−1) for 1-(β-d-erythrofuranosyl)adenine (EA)-activated phosphoryl transfer to phosphite dianion was determined, and the isohypophosphate reaction product characterized by (31)P NMR. The results demonstrate: (i) a ≥14.7 kcal/mol stabilization of the transition state for phosphoryl transfer by the adenosyl group of AMP and a ≥2.6 x 10(6)-fold rate acceleration from the EA-driven conformational change, and (ii) the recovery of ≥8.7 kcal/mol of this transition state stabilization for EA-activated phosphoryl transfer from ATP to phosphite.

The activation barriers ΔG⧧ for kcat/Km for the reactions of whole substrates catalyzed by 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and glucose 6-phosphate isomerase are reduced by 11-13 kcal/mol by interactions between the protein and the substrate phosphodianion. Between 4 and 6 kcal/mol of this dianion binding energy is expressed at the transition state for phosphite dianion activation of the respective enzyme-catalyzed reactions of truncated substrates d-xylonate or d-xylose. These and earlier results from studies on β-phosphoglucomutase, triosephosphate isomerase, and glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase define a cluster of six enzymes that catalyze reactions in glycolysis or of glycolytic intermediates, and which utilize substrate dianion binding energy for enzyme activation. Dianion-driven conformational changes, which convert flexible open proteins to tight protein cages for the phosphorylated substrate, have been thoroughly documented for five of these six enzymes. The clustering of metabolic enzymes which couple phosphodianion-driven conformational changes to enzyme activation suggests that this catalytic motif has been widely propagated in the proteome.

Solvent isotope effects have long been used as a mechanistic tool for determining enzyme mechanisms. Most commonly, macroscopic rate constants such as kcat and kcat/Km are found to decrease when the reaction is performed in D2O for a variety of reasons including the transfer of protons. Under certain circumstances, these constants are found to increase, in what is termed an inverse solvent kinetic isotope effect (SKIE), which can be a diagnostic mechanistic feature. Generally, these phenomena can be attributed to an inverse solvent equilibrium isotope effect on a rapid equilibrium preceding the rate-limiting step(s). This review surveys inverse SKIEs in enzyme-catalyzed reactions by assessing their underlying origins in common mechanistic themes. Case studies for each category are presented, and the mechanistic implications are put into context. It is hoped that readers may find the illustrative examples valuable in planning and interpreting solvent isotope effect experiments.