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Limb-reduced and limbless scincid lizards pose problems in untangling their relationships because of a strong tendency toward convergent evolution in which functional characters mask phylogenetic history. Their often small size makes cranial characters difficult to study, and collections of such species are often small and patchy because of their cryptic behavior. One such genus, Anomalopus (Sphenomorphinae), currently includes seven species of reduce-limbed and limbless skinks that occur in tropical and subtropical habitats in eastern Australia. The discovery of previously unreported populations of limbless skinks assignable to Anomalopus has prompted our revision of the morphology and systematics of this genus. We report new DNA sequence data and new morphological data by using X-ray micro-computed tomography scanning that corroborate published molecular data on sphenomorphine phylogeny, leading us to propose a new generic arrangement that recognizes the species of Anomalopus as belonging to three genera. The newly discovered populations represent two new species currently known from only three small and disjunct areas. We review the osteology of the three genera of the former Anomalopus, finding new characters and variable patterns of interspecific and interclade variation. The same morphological characters are modified in every limb-reduced sphenomorphine clade, but to differing degrees and in different combinations in each.

Our knowledge of the conservation status of reptiles, the most diverse class of terrestrial vertebrates, has improved dramatically over the past decade, but still lags behind that of the other tetrapod groups. Here, we conduct the first comprehensive evaluation (~92% of the world’s ~1,714 described species) of the conservation status of skinks (Scincidae), a speciose reptile family with a worldwide distribution. Using International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria, we report that ~20% of species are threatened with extinction, and nine species are Extinct or Extinct in the Wild. The highest levels of threat are evident in Madagascar and the Neotropics, and in the subfamilies Mabuyinae, Eugongylinae and Scincinae. The vast majority of threatened skink species were listed based primarily on their small geographic ranges (Criterion B, 83%; Criterion D2, 13%). Although the population trend of 42% of species was stable, 14% have declining populations. The key threats to skinks are habitat loss due to agriculture, invasive species, and biological resource use (e.g., hunting, timber harvesting). The distributions of 61% of species do not overlap with protected areas. Despite our improved knowledge of the conservation status of the world’s skinks, 8% of species remain to be assessed, and 14% are listed as Data Deficient. The conservation status of almost a quarter of the world’s skink species thus remains unknown. We use our updated knowledge of the conservation status of the group to develop and outline the priorities for the conservation assessment and management of the world’s skink species.

As we collect range-wide genetic data for morphologically-defined species, we increasingly unearth evidence for cryptic diversity. Delimiting this cryptic diversity is challenging, both because the divergences span a continuum and because the lack of overt morphological differentiation suggests divergence has proceeded heterogeneously. Herein, we address these challenges as we diagnose and describe species in three co-occurring species groups of Australian lizards. By integrating genomic and morphological data with data on hybridization and introgression from contact zones, we explore several approaches-and their relative benefits and weaknesses-for testing the validity of cryptic lineages. More generally, we advocate that genetic delimitations of cryptic diversity must consider whether these lineages are likely to be durable and persistent through evolutionary time.

The genus Proablepharus currently contains five species (P. barrylyoni, P. kinghorni, P. naranjicaudus, P. reginae and P. tenuis). Morphologically, these are readily separated into two groups: the small, almost patternless species (P. reginae and P. tenuis) and the larger, striped species (P. kinghorni, P. barrylyoni and P. naranjicaudus). We present genetic and morphological data to demonstrate that these two groups are generically distinct from each other. As P. reginae is the type species for Proablepharus, we erect a new genus, Austroablepharus gen. nov., for the kinghorni group and designate A. kinghorni as the type species.

Recent field surveys have collected more information on the poorly known species, Lerista rochfordensis. Previously known only from one dry rainforest patch of around 2 000 hectares in northern Queensland, the species was discovered in a neighbouring patch, 8 km distant, itself about 1 600 hectares in extent. The two populations are separated by cleared grazing land and the Kirk River, an ephemeral tributary of the Burdekin River. Statistically significant but comparatively small genetic and morphological divergence was observed between the two populations, suggesting they should still be considered conspecific under the Evolutionary Species Concept but are undergoing allopatric speciation.

We present information on primary type specimens for 13,282 species and subspecies of reptiles compiled in the Reptile Database, that is, holotypes, neotypes, lectotypes, and syntypes. These represent 99.4% of all 13,361 currently recognized taxa (11,050 species and 2311 subspecies). Type specimens of 653 taxa (4.9%) are either lost or not located, were never designated, or we did not find any information about them. 51 species are based on iconotypes. To map all types to physical collections we have consolidated all synonymous and ambiguous collection acronyms into an unambiguous list of 364 collections holding these primary types. The 10 largest collections possess more than 50% of all (primary) reptile types, the 36 largest collections possess more than 10,000 types and the largest 73 collections possess over 90% of all types. Of the 364 collections, 107 hold type specimens of only 1 species or subspecies. Dozens of types are still in private collections. In order to increase their utility, we recommend that the description of type specimens be supplemented with data from high-resolution images and CT-scans, and clear links to tissue samples and DNA sequence data (when available). We request members of the herpetological community provide us with any missing type information to complete the list.

A species of the skink genus Lerista is described from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland. The species is biogeographically interesting as it appears to be separated by at least 500 km from its nearest relatives, members of the Lerista allanae clade. The role of Pleistocene sea level changes altering availability of suitable habitat for these sand specialists is discussed as a possible driver of isolation and speciation.

Ongoing surveys for skinks of the genus Lerista in north Queensland have resulted in the collection of voucher specimens from two populations formerly assigned to Lerista storri Greer, McDonald & Lawrie, 1983 that are geographically isolated from the type population and show a degree of morphological variation differing from the type population. Analysis of recently collected material has confirmed both populations are specifically distinct to the type population, with one being more closely related to Lerista ameles Greer, 1979, another little known, north Queensland species. Consequently, these populations are described as Lerista alia sp. nov. and Lerista parameles sp. nov. The morphological diversity of L. storri is thereby restricted, necessitating a redescription. The conservation status of all these taxa is discussed.

Global biodiversity loss is a profound consequence of human activity. Disturbingly, biodiversity loss is greater than realized because of the unknown number of undocumented species. Conservation fundamentally relies on taxonomic recognition of species, but only a fraction of biodiversity is described. Here, we provide a new quantitative approach for prioritizing rigorous taxonomic research for conservation. We implement this approach in a highly diverse vertebrate group—Australian lizards and snakes. Of 870 species assessed, we identified 282 (32.4%) with taxonomic uncertainty, of which 17.6% likely comprise undescribed species of conservation concern. We identify 24 species in need of immediate taxonomic attention to facilitate conservation. Using a broadly applicable return-on-investment framework, we demonstrate the importance of prioritizing the fundamental work of identifying species before they are lost., In order to inform conservation effort, there is urgent need for rigorous taxonomic research to describe species under threat of extinction. Implementation of a new prioritization method identified 282 Australian reptile species needing taxonomic research, of which 17.6% represent undescribed species of conservation concern; this approach could be readily implemented across many faunal groups.

Australia is a global hotspot of reptile diversity, hosting similar to 10% of the world's squamate (snake and lizard) species. Yet the conservation status of the Australian squamate fauna has not been assessed for >25 years; a period during which the described fauna has risen by similar to 40%. Here we provide the first comprehensive conservation assessment of Australian terrestrial squamates using IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Most (86.4%; n = 819/948) Australian squamates were categorised as Least Concern, 4.5% were Data Deficient, and 7.1% (range 6.8%-11.3%, depending on the treatment of Data Deficient species) were threatened (3.0% Vulnerable, 2.7% Endangered, 1.1% Critically Endangered). This level of threat is low relative to the global average (similar to 18%). One species (Emoia nativitatis) was assessed as Extinct, and two species (Lepidodactylus listeri and Cryptoblepharus egeriae) are considered Extinct in the Wild: all three were endemic to Christmas Island. Most (75.1%) threat assessments were based on geographic range attributes, due to limited data on population trends or relevant proxies. Agriculture, fire, and invasive species were the threats that affected the most species, and there was substantial geographic variation in the number of species affected by each threat. Threatened species richness peaked on islands, in the Southern Alps, and across northern Australia. Data deficiency was greatest in northern Australia and in coastal Queensland. Approximately one-in-five threatened species were not represented in a single protected area. Our analyses shed light on the species, regions, and threats in most urgent need of conservation intervention.

Antaioserpens albiceps (Boulenger, 1898) NORTH-EASTERN PLAIN-NOSED BURROWING SNAKE (Figs 7, 8, 9, 10) Denisonia rostralis De Vis 1911 Rhynchelaps fuscicollis L��nnberg & Andersson 1915 Material examined. QM J 26286 Coen (13 �� 56 'S, 143 �� 11 'E) QLD. QM J 93026 Lilyvale Creek, Lilyvale (14 �� 29 ' 18 "S, 143 �� 40 ' 42 "E) QLD; QM J 57666 Strathgordon Homestead, old house site (14 �� 41 'S, 142 �� 10 'E) QLD; QM J 23333 Edward River Community, north-west of Cape York (14 �� 54 'S, 141 �� 37 'E) QLD; AM R 46024 between Kuranda and Myola (16 �� 53 'S, 145 �� 36 'E) QLD; QM J 53975 6km west Mareeba (17 ��00'S, 145 �� 22 'E) QLD; QM J 193 Stannary Hills, Atherton Tableland (17 �� 19 ' S 145 �� 13 'E) QLD (Fig. 8); QM J 31055 Mt Garnet (17 �� 41 'S, 145 ��07'E) QLD; QM J 61900 Bluewater Beach, via Townsville (19 �� 11 'S, 146 �� 33 'E) QLD; QM J 61897 Bohle River (19 �� 15 'S, 146 �� 43 'E) QLD; QM J 47948 Hervey Range, Townsville (19 �� 45 'S, 146 �� 36 'E) QLD; QM J 44477 Charters Towers area (20 ��05'S, 146 �� 16 'E) QLD; QM J 53974 no locality data. Diagnosis. A. albiceps is distinguished from all other Australia elapids by the following suite of characters: eyes small; snout weakly shovel shaped, rostral scale lacking an acute transverse cutting edge; nasal and preocular scale separated by prefrontal / supralabial contact; two primary temporal scales; 15 midbody rows; subcaudals divided; a black bar between the eyes and another broad black bar across the nape; dorsal body scales with dark, even edges forming a reticulated pattern. Description. A small fossorial elapid (SVL 180���399 mm, mean = 290, n = 13). Eye small; its diameter subequal, or less, than a straight line vertical distance to the ventral edge of subocular supralabial. Rostral large, about twice as broad as deep, weakly shovel-shaped and lacking an acute transverse cutting edge. Nasals in contact with 1 st two supralabials, undivided. Internasals smaller than prefrontals which extend laterally contacting 2 nd and 3 rd supralabials. Nasal separated from preocular. Frontal longer than its distance from tip of snout and usually subequal in length to parietals (width 56���70 % length). Preocular 1. Postocular 2. Supralabials 6. Temporals 2 + 2; lower primary temporal squarish and notched between the dorsal edges of 5 th and 6 th supralabials. Two pairs of chin shields, the 1 st in broad contact with the first three infralabials. Midbody scale rows 15. Ventrals 131���159 (mean = 145.3, n = 12). Tail short (7.3���12.5 % SVL, mean = 9.7, n = 11). Anal divided. Subcaudals 15���22 (median = 19.1, n = 13), all divided. Colour pattern of holotype (BMNH 1946.1.17.50). The holotype is faded but the dark head and neck markings were still visible when Hal Cogger photographed it between November 1969 and April 1970, as was evidence of its reticulated pattern. The original colour pattern description is as follows: ������Body yellow (red?) above, white beneath; head white, snout and lips speckled with black; a ^ - shaped black band between the eyes and a black spot behind each eye; a large black blotch on the nape.��� Colour pattern of spirit specimens in Qld Museum collection. Head mid - pale brown with a prominent black or dark brown patch that varies in extent. In most specimens it is concentrated around the frontal and preoculars and extends back to the anterior - mid parietals. The pattern on the snout, temporal region and back of head usually breaks into dark flecking but in QM J 93026 the dark markings extend beyond the posterior edge of the parietals. Similarly in QM J 47948 and QM J 23333, the dark markings extend to the tip of the snout. Supralabials pale with heavy dark flecking. A broad black collar on neck ~ 7���11 scales long and ~ 8���12 scales wide; separated from darker head colour by ~ 1���6 rows of paler scales. Body pattern mid-brown (orange to orange brown in life) above, each scale marked with an even, dark edging that gives a reticulated appearance. Venter immaculate, off-white. Chin shields and lower labials marbled with brown. Comparison with similar species. Antaioserpens albiceps is readily distinguished from its only congener, A. warro, by differences in colour pattern (dorsal scales with even dark edges producing a reticulated pattern in A. albiceps vs. dorsal scales with irregular dark edging producing a speckled appearance in A. warro). It is distinguished from all other members of the Vermicella subgroup (Greer 1997)��� Brachyurophis, Neelaps, Simoselaps and Vermicella in possessing two (vs. one) primary temporal scales. Distribution. (Fig. 5). A. albiceps is known from coastal and subcoastal areas from Mapoon Mission (11 �� 58 'S, 141 �� 53 'E), near the tip of Cape York Peninsula, to approximately 160 km NW of Clermont (22 ��08' 59 "S, 146 �� 27 ' 23 "E). The data points on the distribution map are from the Atlas of Living Australia. Most are backed by specimens in the collections of the Queensland Museum and the Australian Museum but some are sight records only. Most of these are closely associated with localities for which A. albiceps vouchers exist. However, no vouchers were collected for the most southerly (22 ��08' 59 "S, 146 �� 27 ' 23 "E) and westerly records (17 �� 28 ' 55 "S, 140 �� 50 ' 34 "E). The former can be verified by examining photographs associated with the WildNet database (Queensland Government - Department of Science Information Technology and Innovation) but the latter could not be confirmed. Habitat. Open forests and woodlands of Cape York Peninsula, Wet Tropics, Einasleigh Uplands, Desert Uplands and Brigalow Belt North bioregions. Only one specimen in the Qld Museum has associated habit data, QM J 93026 which was collected from riparian woodland on a clay soil flat., Published as part of Peck, Patrick J. Couper Stephen R., Emery, Jon-Paul & Keogh, J. Scott, 2016, Two snakes from eastern Australia (Serpentes: Elapidae); a revised concept of Antaioserpens warro (De Vis) and a redescription of A. albiceps (Boulenger), pp. 396-408 in Zootaxa 4097 (3) on pages 402-404, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4097.3.7, http://zenodo.org/record/262014, {"references":["Boulenger, G. A. (1898) Descriptions of two new snakes from Queensland. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 7, 2 (11), 414. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1080 / 00222939808678063","De Vis, C. W. (1911) Descriptions of snakes apparently new. Annals of the Queensland Museum, 10, 22 - 25.","Lonnberg, E. & Andersson, G. L. (1915) Results of Dr. E. Mjoberg's Swedish Scientific Expeditions to Australia 1910 - 1913. VII. Reptiles collected in northern Queensland. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens handlingar, 52 (7), 1 - 9.","Greer, A. E. (1997) The biology and evolution of Australian snakes. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, 358 pp."]}

Antaioserpens warro (De Vis 1884) WARREGO BURROWING SNAKE (Figs 1, 2 A, 3, 4) Specimens examined. Holotype: QM J 188 (Fig. 1) Warro Stn, Port Curtis. QM J 78486, Hill St, Charleville (26 �� 24 'S, 146 �� 14 'E), Qld; QM J 93427, Orkadilla State Forest (26 ��05' 57 "S, 147 �� 13 '01"E), Qld. Diagnosis. A. warro is distinguished from all other Australia elapid snakes by the following suite of characters: eyes small; snout weakly shovel shaped, rostral scale lacking an acute transverse cutting edge; nasal and preocular scale separated by prefrontal / supralabial contact; two primary temporal scales; 15 midbody rows; subcaudals divided; a black bar between the eyes and another broad black bar across the nape; dorsal body scales irregularly dark-edged producing a speckled pattern. Description. A small fossorial elapid (SVL 260���410 mm n = 3). Eye small; its diameter subequal, or less, than a straight line vertical distance to the ventral edge of subocular supralabial. Rostral large, about twice as broad as deep; weakly shovel-shaped and lacking an acute transverse cutting edge. Nasals in contact with 1 st two supralabials, undivided. Internasals smaller than prefrontals which extend laterally contacting the 2 nd or 2 nd and 3 rd supralabials. Nasal separated from preocular. Frontal longer than its distance from tip of snout and subequal in length to parietals (width 54.9���66.3 % length). Preocular 1. Postocular 2. Supralabials 6. Temporals 2 + 2; lower primary temporal squarish and notched between the dorsal edges of 5 th and 6 th supralabials. Two pairs of chin shields, the 1 st in broad contact with the first three infralabials. Midbody scale rows 15. Ventrals 139���150 (mean = 144, n = 3). Anal divided. Tail short (6.5���7.7 % SVL, mean = 7.2, n = 3); Subcaudals 15���17 (mean = 15.7, n = 3), all divided. Colour pattern of holotype (QMJ 188). The holotype is now totally faded with the only record of its original pattern being the following brief description: ���Brown, many of the scales irregularly edged with darker, producing a speckled appearance. On the nape, a very broad lunated collar. Upper surfaces of head, except tips of the occipitals, dark, but paler than nuchal collar��� (De Vis, 1884 a). This description is in all ways consistent with the appearance of the recently collected specimens (QM J 78486 & QM J 93427) discussed below. Colour pattern of recent spirit specimens. Head with a distinct blackish hood that extends from the posterior margin of the parietals, or slightly beyond, to the tip of the snout and becomes increasingly diffuse on the prefrontals, internasals and rostral. Temporal region dark. Supralabials pale with irregular darker edges and flecks; marbled anteriorly. A broad, black collar on neck, ~ 6���8 scales long and ~ 12 scales wide; separated from head pattern by ~ 3���4 rows of paler scales. Body tan to olive brown above, each scale marked with irregular dark edging that produce a speckled pattern. A narrow, dark line sometimes present on caudal vertebral scales (3 / 5 specimens). Venter off-white, with some dark blotching along outer edges of ventral scales. Chin shields and lower labials marbled with brown. Colour pattern of additional material for which there are no vouchers. The specimen from Charleville that was observed, but not photographed, is consistent with the above descriptions. The Mitchell specimen (Fig. 3) is similar in most respects except the head markings are less extensive, only reaching back as far as the mid- parietals. The snout markings are also more diffuse. Comparison with similar species. Antaioserpens warro is readily distinguished from its only congener, A. albiceps, by differences in colour pattern (dorsal scales with irregular dark edging producing a speckled appearance in A. warro vs. dorsal scales with even dark edges producing a reticulated pattern in A. albiceps). It is distinguished from all other members of the Vermicella subgroup (Greer 1997)��� Brachyurophis, Neelaps, Simoselaps and Vermicella in possessing two (vs. one) primary temporal scales. Distribution. (Fig. 5). All recent records come from three localities in south central Qld; Charleville (26 �� 24 'S, 146 �� 14 'E), Mitchell (26 �� 29 'S, 147 �� 28 'E) and Orkadilla State Forest (north of Morven 26 ��05' 57 "S, 147 �� 13 '01"E). Habitat. (Fig. 6). All recent specimens have been recorded from the eastern edge of the Brigalow Belt South and proximate areas of the Mulga Lands Bioregion. QM J 93427, from Orkadilla State Forest, was collected from Poplar Box (Eucalyptus populnea) / Cypress Pine (Callitris glaucophylla) shrubby woodlands with a grassy ground cover on medium to coarse-grained sediments (Sattler & Williams 1999). The Charleville and Mitchell specimens are without habitat descriptions but Poplar Box woodlands similar to the above description also occur at these locations. That one of the Charleville specimens came from a footpath in town suggests that the species can persist, to some degree, in human-impacted habitats. Comments. We propose Warrego Burrowing Snake as a common name for this species after the name of the highway that traverses the recent collection sites. The name North-eastern Plain-nosed Burrowing Snake used by Cogger (2014), but first proposed by Ehmann (1992), refers to A. albiceps., Published as part of Peck, Patrick J. Couper Stephen R., Emery, Jon-Paul & Keogh, J. Scott, 2016, Two snakes from eastern Australia (Serpentes: Elapidae); a revised concept of Antaioserpens warro (De Vis) and a redescription of A. albiceps (Boulenger), pp. 396-408 in Zootaxa 4097 (3) on pages 398-401, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4097.3.7, http://zenodo.org/record/262014, {"references":["De Vis, C. W. (1884 a) Descriptions of new snakes with a synopsis of the genus Hoplocephalus Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 1, 138 - 140.","Greer, A. E. (1997) The biology and evolution of Australian snakes. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, 358 pp.","Sattler, P. & Williams, R. (1999) The conservation status of Queensland's bioregional ecosystems. Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane, 625 pp.","Cogger, H. G. (2014) Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, 1033 pp.","Ehmann, H. (1992) Encyclopedia of Australian Animals, Reptiles. Collins Angus & Robertson Publishers Pty Ltd, Pymble, 495 pp."]}

Peck, Patrick J. Couper Stephen R., Emery, Jon-Paul, Keogh, J. Scott (2016): Two snakes from eastern Australia (Serpentes: Elapidae); a revised concept of Antaioserpens warro (De Vis) and a redescription of A. albiceps (Boulenger). Zootaxa 4097 (3): 396-408, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4097.3.7

Herein we describe two new species of the skink genus Lerista from north-eastern Queensland, based on morphological and genetic data. Additionally, we redescribe L. cinerea as this species is morphologically more variable than previously suggested. We allocate these three species to the L. wilkinsi group (Greer et al. 1983) which is here identified as an endemic Queensland radiation, comprising L. ameles, L. cinerea, L. hobsoni sp. nov., L. storri, L. vanderduysi sp. nov., L. vittata and L. wilkinsi. A number of these species have strong associations with semi-evergreen vine thickets, listed as an endangered habitat under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999).

Antaioserpens warro sensu lato is known from two populations, one in north-eastern Queensland (Qld), the other from south central Qld. Morphological and genetic assessments demonstrate that these widely separated populations represent two species. A re-examination of museum specimens and the type descriptions show that the name A. warro (De Vis) has been erroneously applied to the north-eastern Qld species. The type specimen of A. warro, from the Gladstone district in south-east Qld, is badly faded but the colour pattern as described by De Vis (1884a) is consistent with that of recently collected specimens from south central Qld and it is this species to which the name applies. The earliest available name for the species from north-eastern Qld is A. albiceps (Boulenger, 1898). Both A. warro and A. albiceps are redescribed herein.

We describe a new species of small terrestrial gecko in the genus Diplodactylus from inland regions of western Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. Diplodactylus ameyi sp. nov. can be distinguished from its congeners in the Diplodactylus conspicillatus species-group by its relatively large size, bulbous tail which lacks an acute attenuated extension at tip, small first labial scale and comparatively robust head morphology (which includes a broadly rounded snout and no well-defined canthus rostralis). Related populations from eastern and central Queensland currently referred to D. platyurus include further deeply divergent lineages but additional material is required to resolve systematic boundaries in this region.

Lerista karlschmidti was described from three specimens collected in the Woodstock area of north-eastern Queensland in the early 1950s but has not been recorded from Queensland since. A widely disjunct population occurs in the Northern Territory. Consequently, there has been some doubt as to whether the type series is actually from Queensland or whether these specimens had originated from the Northern Territory. The type series was re-examined and only two of the three specimens were found to be conspecific; these were morphologically consistent with material from the Northern Territory. The third specimen can be assigned to a narrowly endemic north-east Queensland population of Lerista cf. storri. Information provided by the collector’s son supports a Queensland origin for the type material, as does the inclusion of a narrowly endemic north-east Queensland taxon in the type series. Given the narrow endemicity that characterises north Queensland Lerista spp., it is unlikely that the Queensland and Northern Territory L. karlschmidti populations are conspecific. Lerista karlschmidti was last collected in Queensland 57 years ago and the Woodstock area has been substantially modified during this time. The conservation status of L. karlschmidti in Queensland warrants further investigation, particularly in light of conservation concerns for the congeneric Lerista allanae.

Rainforest was formerly widespread on the Australian continent but underwent large-scale contraction to pockets on the east coast through the Miocene and Quaternary. This contraction was due to increasingly dry and seasonal climatic conditions across the continent, which reached greatest severity during the glacial cycles of the Pleistocene. Extensive areas of exposed, layered rock in the mesic areas of Australia provide similar microclimatic conditions to rainforest, in being cool, moist and largely sheltered from fire. These rock habitats are stable and relatively buffered from short- and long-term climatic changes. Therefore, rock habitats can act as refugia (litho-refugia) for the persistence of rainforest lineages in areas where rainforest is currently, or was historically, marginal or absent. Here we outline a number of examples of rainforest faunal groups, primarily from mid-eastern and northeastern Queensland, that exemplify the importance of rock landscapes in the persistence of rainforest lineages.

It has long been suggested that the populations of the Zigzag Velvet Gecko Oedura rhombifer in south-eastern Queensland represent a distinct species. Here, we provide morphological data supporting this assertion, and describe these populations as Oedura jacovae sp. nov. This species is predominately arboreal and is found in open eucalypt forests between the distributions of its two most similar congeners, O. rhombifer to the north and O. lesueurii to the south. It is morphologically distinguished from its congeners by dorsal pattern, characteristics of the 1 st and 2 nd supralabial scales, and the degree of webbing between the 3 rd and 4 th toes. Preliminary genetic data shows that Oedura jacovae sp. nov. is most closely related to O. rhombifer and O. lesueurii but is highly divergent from both. Further sampling is required to refine distributional knowledge of O. jacovae sp. nov. and to determine zones of contact between it and its closest congeners. Oedura jacovae sp. nov. is widespread in south-eastern Queensland but is likely to be threatened by the extensive clearing of lowland eucalyptus forest communities. Competition from rapidly expanding populations of the introduced Asian House Gecko Hemidactylus frenatus is also of concern. The examination of comparative material in this study allows us to highlight a number of populations of O. rhombifer that are morphologically interesting and in need of taxonomic investigation. Additionally, we confirm that the lectotypes of O. rhombifer and O. lesueurii are consistent with the currently accepted concepts of these two taxa.

The genus Liburnascincus is composed of saxicoline skinks restricted to northeast Australia. This small radiation consists of one widespread species, L. mundivensis, found in a variety of rocky habitats in eastern Queensland, and two localized species, L. coensis and L. scirtetis, restricted to granite boulder habitats on Cape York Peninsula, in north Queensland. Here we describe a fourth species, L. artemis sp. nov., from the Bamboo Range, a low rocky range on Cape York. As for other Liburnascincus, the new species is a saxicoline skink that is active on boulder surfaces primarily early and late in the day. Liburnascincus artemis sp. nov. is most similar to L. mundivensis but can be diagnosed based on longer limbs, higher toe and finger lamellae counts, lower midbody scale count, and other aspects of morphology, scalation and colour pattern. Liburnascincus artemis sp. nov. is currently known from a very small area but further surveys will likely extend the range. It is geographically separated from L. mundivensis to the south by unsuitable habitat in the Laura region, but it may abut the range of L. coensis to the north. Despite a small distribution, L. artemis sp. nov. occurs at high density at the known sites and appears to be currently secure. In this paper we also discuss the distributions and biogeography of Liburnascincus more broadly.

Menetia timlowi Ingram 1977 has had a chequered generic history due to ambiguity in interpreting its various character states. Ingram (1977) assigned this species to Menetia on the strength of "the long narrow obliquely oriented first supraocular" and "enlarged upper circumoculars". In doing so, he admitted the possibility that M. timlowi "may in fact be a Carlia" but because "all Carlia, except burnetti, lack fused lower eyelids and have a typically anvil shaped presubocular", allocating timlowi to Menetia seemed the best available option. Ingram and Covacevich (1988) revisited the generic status of this species when resurrecting Lygisaurus from the synonymy of Carlia to accommodate a group of small leaf-litter dwelling skinks. In proposing the new combination L. timlowi (Ingram 1977), they considered the supraoculars to be transverse whereas Ingram had stated them to be oblique in his original species description.

Tropical rainforest is largely restricted in Australia to the fairly continuous Wet Tropics region and disconnected patches to the north on Cape York. The Wet Tropics is relatively well explored and studied, whereas the rainforests of Cape York have received less attention due to their remoteness. Here we describe two new species of Glaphyromorphus skinks from rainforest areas on Cape York. The two new species are most similar to each other and to G. fuscicaudis and G. nigricaudis, but both are readily diagnosed on numerous traits. Glaphyromorphus othelarrni sp. nov. is diagnosed from all similar species by its supralabial count (typically 8 vs 7), high number of subdigital lamellae beneath the 4th finger (14-15 vs14), and its relatively longer limbs. Glaphyromorphus nyanchupinta sp. nov. is diagnosed from all similar species by its small body size (max SVL = ~ 54 mm vs85 mm) and slender body shape, low number of subdigital lamellae beneath the 4th toe (17-20 vs generally 20 or more), and head and body pattern. Both species also differ from each other and similar congeners in other aspects of body shape, scalation and colour pattern. Glaphyromorphus othelarrni sp. nov. is restricted to boulder-strewn rainforest of the Melville Range, whilst Glaphyromorphus nyanchupinta sp. nov. is known only from upland rainforest in the McIlwraith Range. We discuss patterns of rainforest vertebrate endemism on Cape York, and the importance of lithorefugia in generating these.

MB and MR were funded by a grant from the Esmee Fairbairn Foundation, BC by the Rufford Foundation. North American and Mexican species assessments were funded by the Regina Bauer Frankenberg Foundation for Animal Welfare. Species assessments under the Global Reptile Assessment (GRA) initiative are supported by: Moore Family Foundation, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Conservation International, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), and European Commission. Additional acknowledgements are included in the online supplementary material. The assessment workshop for Mexican reptiles was kindly hosted by Ricardo Ayala and the station personnel of the Estacion de Biologia Chamela, Institut de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. Workshop and logistical organisation of the Philippines assessments was provided by the Conservation International Philippines Office, in particular Ruth Grace Rose Ambal, Melizar V. Duya and Oliver Coroza. Workshop and logistical organisation for the European Reptile and Amphibian Assessments was provided by Doga Dernegi, in particular Ozge Balkiz and Ozgur Koc. Workshop and logistical organisation for assessments of sea snakes and homalopsids was provided by the International Sea Turtle Symposium and Dr. Colin Limpus (Australian Government Environmental Protection Agency). Special thanks to Jenny Chapman (EPA) and Chloe Schaub le (ISTS). Thank you also to Dr. Gordon Guymer (Chief Botanist Director of Herbarium) for accommodating us at the Herbarium in the Brisbane Botanical Gardens, and Mark Read and Kirsten Dobbs (Great Barrier Reef Marine Parks Association) and Dave Pollard and Brad Warren (Ocean Watch Australia) for institutional support. Mohamed Bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund, Conservation International Madagascar and the Darwin Initiative contributed to funding the costs of the Madagascar reptile workshop., Effective and targeted conservation action requires detailed information about species, their distribution, systematics and ecology as well as the distribution of threat processes which affect them. Knowledge of reptilian diversity remains surprisingly disparate, and innovative means of gaining rapid insight into the status of reptiles are needed in order to highlight urgent conservation cases and inform environmental policy with appropriate biodiversity information in a timely manner. We present the first ever global analysis of extinction risk in reptiles, based on a random representative sample of 1500 species (16% of all currently known species). To our knowledge, our results provide the first analysis of the global conservation status and distribution patterns of reptiles and the threats affecting them, highlighting conservation priorities and knowledge gaps which need to be addressed urgently to ensure the continued survival of the world’s reptiles. Nearly one in five reptilian species are threatened with extinction, with another one in five species classed as Data Deficient. The proportion of threatened reptile species is highest in freshwater environments, tropical regions and on oceanic islands, while data deficiency was highest in tropical areas, such as Central Africa and Southeast Asia, and among fossorial reptiles. Our results emphasise the need for research attention to be focussed on tropical areas which are experiencing the most dramatic rates of habitat loss, on fossorial reptiles for which there is a chronic lack of data, and on certain taxa such as snakes for which extinction risk may currently be underestimated due to lack of population information. Conservation actions specifically need to mitigate the effects of human-induced habitat loss and harvesting, which are the predominant threats to reptiles., Esmee Fairbairn Foundation, Rufford Foundation, Regina Bauer Frankenberg Foundation for Animal Welfare, Moore Family Foundation, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Conservation International, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), European Commission Joint Research Centre, Zayed Species Conservation Fund, Conservation International Madagascar, Darwin Initiative

Antaioserpens warro sensu lato is known from two populations, one in north-eastern Queensland (Qld), the other from south central Qld. Morphological and genetic assessments demonstrate that these widely separated populations represent two species. A re-examination of museum specimens and the type descriptions show that the name A. warro (De Vis) has been erroneously applied to the north-eastern Qld species. The type specimen of A. warro, from the Gladstone district in south-east Qld, is badly faded but the colour pattern as described by De Vis (1884a) is consistent with that of recently collected specimens from south central Qld and it is this species to which the name applies. The earliest available name for the species from north-eastern Qld is A. albiceps (Boulenger, 1898). Both A. warro and A. albiceps are redescribed herein.

We describe a new species of small terrestrial gecko in the genus Diplodactylus from inland regions of western Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. Diplodactylus ameyi sp. nov. can be distinguished from its congeners in the Diplodactylus conspicillatus species-group by its relatively large size, bulbous tail which lacks an acute attenuated extension at tip, small first labial scale and comparatively robust head morphology (which includes a broadly rounded snout and no well-defined canthus rostralis). Related populations from eastern and central Queensland currently referred to D. platyurus include further deeply divergent lineages but additional material is required to resolve systematic boundaries in this region.

Based on a combination of morphological and genetic data, geographically isolated populations of Pygopus from northeastern Queensland, formerly referred to Pygopus lepidopodus (Lacepede), are herein described as a new species. Pygopus robertsi sp. nov. can be diagnosed from its congeners by a suite of scalation characters, including fewer keeled dorsal scales, presence of a single continuous row of supracilaries and a lower number of midbody scale rows. It is also deeply divergent genetically from samples of Pygopus lepidopodus from southern Australia. The known distribution of Pygopus robertsi sp. nov. is similar to that of a number of taxa centred upon relatively dry ecotonal habitats at the western edge of the rainforest blocks of north-eastern Queensland. Additional samples and systematic work will be required to examine the evolutionary divergence of apparently isolated populations of the new species, and the significance of considerable genetic and morphological diversity within remaining populations of Pygopus lepidopodus from south-eastern and southern Australia.

A new limb-reduced skink from the dry rainforest of north Queensland is described as Lerista rochfordensis sp. nov. It is distinguished from its congeners by forelimb absent with no groove or other indication, hindlimb 5–8% SVL with a single clawed digit, and five supraciliary scales. Its narrow distribution coupled with its apparent reliance on dry rainforest, an endangered habitat, meets the criteria outlined for a Vulnerable listing under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Qld).

The Saltuarius swaini lineage comprises four species: S. swaini (Wells & Wellington, 1985), S. wyberba (Couper et al., 1997), S. moritzi n.sp. and S. kateae n.sp. These are diagnosed by scalation and colour pattern differences; high levels of discrimination between these species were obtained in genetic and multivariate morphological analyses. Two species, Saltuarius swaini and S. wyberba, occur in both southeastern Queensland and northeastern N.S.W. The former is a rainforest obligate, the latter saxicolous. Saltuarius moritzi and S. kateae n.spp. are restricted to northeastern N.S.W. The former is widespread and the least specific in geological and substrate associations. The latter is restricted to the Mt Marsh area. The genus has a rainforest ancestry. Divergence within the "S. swaini " lineage may date to the latest Eocene-Early Miocene. We hypothesize that populations of ancestral leaf-tailed geckos would have been severely fragmented since the Mid Tertiary forcing retreat to rainforest refugia and driving allopatric speciation. Some populations shifted from trees to rocks. All four taxa are well-represented in existing reserves. Saltuarius swaini, a species with a continuous rainforest history and low levels of genetic variation, may be disadvantaged by ecological stasis in the face of global warming.

The genus Liburnascincus is composed of saxicoline skinks restricted to northeast Australia. This small radiation consists of one widespread species, L. mundivensis, found in a variety of rocky habitats in eastern Queensland, and two localized species, L. coensis and L. scirtetis, restricted to granite boulder habitats on Cape York Peninsula, in north Queensland. Here we describe a fourth species, L. artemis sp. nov., from the Bamboo Range, a low rocky range on Cape York. As for other Liburnascincus, the new species is a saxicoline skink that is active on boulder surfaces primarily early and late in the day. Liburnascincus artemis sp. nov. is most similar to L. mundivensis but can be diagnosed based on longer limbs, higher toe and finger lamellae counts, lower midbody scale count, and other aspects of morphology, scalation and colour pattern. Liburnascincus artemis sp. nov. is currently known from a very small area but further surveys will likely extend the range. It is geographically separated from L. mundivensis to the south by unsuitable habitat in the Laura region, but it may abut the range of L. coensis to the north. Despite a small distribution, L. artemis sp. nov. occurs at high density at the known sites and appears to be currently secure. In this paper we also discuss the distributions and biogeography of Liburnascincus more broadly.

The genus Cyrtodactylus is the most diverse and widely distributed group of geckos in the world. Throughout their extensive range, species exploit a diverse range of habitats and are able to partition niches locally. Recent work has shown that Cyrtodactylus geckos in Queensland, Australia, have radiated in situ after colonisation by an arboreal Papuan ancestor and have undergone a habitat switch to rock dwelling during their evolutionary history. Using mitochondrial data we conducted a phylogeographic and molecular dating analysis to investigate the historical biogeography of Cyrtodactylus species in north Queensland. Our analyses show that after the arrival of a Papuan rainforest-dwelling ancestor, Cyrtodactylus diverged into two major lineages: one more restricted in northern Cape York and the other more widespread. Discordance in the timing of the speciation events and phylogeographic distribution within the two lineages likely reflect regional differences in the continuity of mesic rock habitats and climatic variability over the last 15 million years. Reconstructing the history of habitat use on a pre-existing global phylogeny reveals that switches between major habitat ecologies, rock and forest, have occurred multiple times in this genus. The ability to transition between different habitat types may have contributed to the global diversification of these geckos.

Menetia timlowi Ingram 1977 has had a chequered generic history due to ambiguity in interpreting its various character states. Ingram (1977) assigned this species to Menetia on the strength of “the long narrow obliquely oriented first supraocular” and “enlarged upper circumoculars”. In doing so, he admitted the possibility that M. timlowi “may in fact be a Carlia” but because “all Carlia, except burnetti, lack fused lower eyelids and have a typically anvil shaped presubocular”, allocating timlowi to Menetia seemed the best available option. Ingram and Covacevich (1988) revisited the generic status of this species when resurrecting Lygisaurus from the synonymy of Carlia to accommodate a group of small leaf-litter dwelling skinks. In proposing the new combination L. timlowi (Ingram 1977), they considered the supraoculars to be transverse whereas Ingram had stated them to be oblique in his original species description.

Leaf-tailed geckos are a distinctive group of carphodactyline geckos of rainforests and rocky habitats of eastern Australia. Three genera are recognized: Phyllurus (9 species), Saltuarius (6 species) and Orraya (1 species). Leaf-tailed geckos have been the subject of much survey and taxonomic work because they are large, impressive geckos and generally have highly localized distributions. The six species comprising Saltuarius are distributed in rock outcrops and rainforests along the ranges from northern New South Wales to the Wet Tropics region of north-east Queensland. Here we report the discovery of a new Saltuarius species at Cape Melville, a rainforest outlier on Cape York Peninsula in north-east Queensland. The new species is assigned to Saltuarius based on morphological and genetic data. Saltuarius eximius sp. nov. is highly distinct from all congeners in many aspects of morphology. It has a very long slender form, with relatively longer limbs, longer body, narrower body and narrower neck than all congeners. It also has a highly distinct head that is relatively smaller than that of all other Saltuarius, with very large eyes that are grey rather than patterned. The tail is large but with a relatively short attenuated tip. Saltuarius eximius sp. nov. appears to be highly localized to upland rainforest associated with boulder habitat in the Cape Melville Range. The unusual elongate form and large eyes of S. eximius sp. nov. likely reflect adaptation to deep boulder habitat. Two other new vertebrate species (a skink and a frog) were discovered in the rainforest and boulder-fields of Cape Melville during recent surveys, bringing the number of vertebrates known to be endemic to the Cape Melville Range to six (three frogs, two skinks and one gecko).

Scincid lizards belonging to the genus Carlia are found in eastern and northern Australia and in New Guinea andassociated islands. These skinks are a particularly diverse component of the reptile fauna of north-east Australia. Carliapectoralis (de Vis 1884) was formerly regarded as occurring over much of eastern Queensland, in north-east Australia.Here we show that it consists of four species: Carlia pectoralis, Carlia decora sp. nov., Carlia rubigo sp. nov. and Carliainconnexa Ingram & Covacevich 1989 (which was formerly described as a subspecies of C. pectoralis). Herein, wedescribe two new species, elevate C. p. inconnexa to full species status with a revised description, and redescribe C.pectoralis sensu stricto. The four species differ in aspects of scalation, morphology and colour pattern. Carlia decora sp.nov. occurs in vine thickets, rainforest margins and moist open forests in high rainfall coastal areas of mid-east and north-east Queensland. Carlia rubigo sp. nov. occurs in dry open forests of inland eastern Queensland and in some coastal areasof mid-eastern Queensland. Carlia pectoralis is distributed through open forests of south-east Queensland. Carliainconnexa is restricted to rocky open forests on islands of ‘the Whitsundays’ off mid-eastern Queensland. The addition of these three species brings the number of Australian Carlia to 22 species, 17 of which are found in Queensland.

The Eastern Water Dragon is a large, conspicuous agamid, well known to many inhabitants of eastern Australia. It was first described in the scientific literature as Lophura lesueurii by Gray (1831). Gray’s allocation of this taxon to his earlier genus Lophura Gray, 1827, created for the species Lacerta lophura Shaw, 1802, does not mention that Cuvier (1829) had erected Istiurus for amboinensis Schlosser, 1768, which Cuvier treated as a senior synonym of lophura. Cuvier considered the generic name Lophura to be too similar to Lophyrus Latreille, 1802, a genus of conifer sawflies belonging to the family Diprionidae, hence the need for a new genus. Both Gray and Cuvier were evidently unaware that Lophura was unavailable as this name had already been assigned to a genus of phasianid birds (Fleming 1822). The Eastern Water Dragon has subsequently appeared in the taxonomic literature under the following synonyms: Iguana paramatensis Fitzinger, 1843; Amphibolurus maculiferus Girard, 1857; Amphibolurus heterurus Peters, 1866 and Amphibolurus branchialis De Vis, 1884. The combination Physignathus lesueurii was first used in 1845 by Gray in his Catalogue of the Specimens of Lizards in the British Museum and has been in use ever since. The only other generic name proposed for this taxon is Intellagama Wells and Wellington, 1985, by which the authors implied its distinctiveness from the other member of Physignathus, the Chinese Water Dragon P. cocincinus Cuvier, 1829. However, as their description provided no evidence to demonstrate that Australian water dragons are generically distinct from their foreign congener, this name has not been adopted by subsequent authors, and has been informally treated as a synonym of Physignathus.

Proablepharus barrylyoni sp. nov. is described from a single locality near Mt Surprise, north-eastern Queensland. It is distinguished from its congeners by the following character states: body longitudinally striped, four supraoculars, five supraciliaries, frontoparietals fused to interparietal, upper preocular well-developed, two postsupralabials, lamellae beneath digits of pes smoothly rounded. The species was last collected in 1981 and, using criteria prescribed in the Queensland Nature Conservation Act, Wildlife Regulation 1994, qualifies as Vulnerable.

Many threatened species occur as small, isolated populations. Understanding the extent and genetic distinctiveness of these populations is essential for management. Nangura spinosa is a critically endangered skink known from two small populations in dry rainforest in south-east Queensland. We conducted targeted surveys between 2001 and 2010 at the two known N. spinosa sites (Nangur National Park, Oakview National Park area) and in 22 nearby forest blocks with potentially suitable habitat. N. spinosa was found only at the two previously known sites, which are ~36 km apart. The skink appears to be declining at Nangur NP, to an estimated extent of occurrence of 7.4 ha and potentially no more than 35 adults. In contrast, we increase the extent of occurrence at Oakview to 360 ha, where the population is at least in the hundreds. Sequencing of two mtDNA genes revealed considerable genetic divergence between the two populations (3.8% for ND4; 1.2% for 16S), suggesting an extended period of separation. Population fragmentation is therefore not the result of recent land clearing, but of long-term isolation by unsuitable habitat. Each population should be considered a distinct management unit. More data are required on population size and trends, recruitment and threats, particularly for the Nangur population.

Glaphyromorphus clandestinus, sp. nov., is described from granite-slab habitat on Mt Elliot, north-eastern Queensland. This species can be distinguished from its congeners by a combination of the following characters: large size (SVL 72 mm), adpressed limbs of adult separated by noticeably more than the length of the forelimb, 26 mid-body scale rows, and flanks patterned with dark flecks forming a series of longitudinal lines. The distribution, habitat preferences and habits of this species are poorly known. Currently G. clandestinus is known from a single locality where individuals have been found in an exposed area of exfoliating granite, set in a mosaic of rainforest and eucalyptus woodland. The discovery of this species brings to three the number of vertebrate species known to be endemic to Mt Elliot and highlights the evolutionary significance of this southerly outlier to the mountainous rainforest of the Wet Tropics.

Phyllurus gulbaru, sp. nov., is a highly distinct species of leaf-tailed gecko restricted to rocky rainforest of Pattersons Gorge, north-west of Townsville. The possession of a cylindrical, non-depressed, tapering original and regenerated tail separates P. gulbaru from all congeners except P. caudiannulatus. From this species P. gulbaru is separated by having a partially divided, as opposed to fully divided, rostral scale. Furthermore, the very small spinose body tubercles of P. gulbaru are in marked contrast to the large spinose body scales of P. caudiannulatus. An analysis of 729 bp of mitochondrial 12S rRNA and cytochrome b genes reveals P. gulbaru to be a deeply divergent lineage with closer affinities to mid-east Queensland congeners than the geographically neighbouring P. amnicola on Mt Elliot. In conservation terms, P. gulbaru is clearly at risk. Field surveys of Pattersons Gorge and the adjacent ranges indicate that this species is restricted to a very small area of highly fragmented habitat, of which only a small proportion receives a degree of protection in State forest. Further, there is ongoing, unchecked destruction of dry rainforest habitat by fire. Under current IUCN criteria, P. gulbaru warrants an Endangered (B1, 2) listing. ZO s yl C. Js et

Several small isolates of rainforest situated on the central eastern coast of Australia are home to a rich herpetofauna, including four endemic species of leaftail geckos (Phyllurus spp.) and two skinks (Eulamprus spp.). To examine the extent and geographic pattern of historical subdivision among isolates, we assayed mtDNA variation in two species endemic to rainforests of this region (Phyllurus ossa and Eulamprus amplus) and, for comparison, a more widespread and less specialised lizard, Carlia rhomboidalis. There is a clear genetic signature of historical changes in population size and distribution in P. ossa that is consistent with Pleistocene (or earlier) rainforest contraction and subsequent expansion. Although more pronounced in the gecko, phylogeographic structure was congruent between E. amplus and P. ossa. In contrast to the saxicolous, rainforest-restricted P. ossa and E. amplus, the rainforest-generalist species, C. rhomboidalis, does not display strong geographic population structure. The differences in genetic population structure exhibited by the three species are consistent with species-specific differences in ecology. D. M . S Copar o t o d De Sx J , it c et . Z 92

Australia’s agamid genus Diporiphora is speciose and widespread, however, there remain significant taxonomicuncertainties within this group. Field collections across the range of Diporiphora continue to uncover undocumentedmorphological and ecological variation. A new morpho-type was collected from hard pebbly soils on Valetta Station,western Queensland, providing ample data for the description of a new species (Diporiphora ameliae sp. nov.). Weundertook a morphological study, integrated with a comprehensive genetic study to provide the phylogenetic placementand distinctiveness of the new species. Although superficially similar to Diporiphora winneckei, the new species ischaracterised by well developed ventral body patterns consisting of four longitudinal grey stripes on a cream backgroundand three distinctive dark V-shaped markings that converge anteriorly on the throat and gular area. Molecular data ispresented incorporating a ~1200 bp of the mtDNA protein-coding gene ND2 and five flanking tRNAs for 58 newsequences and 53 previously published sequences. Phylogenetic analyses of the molecular data strongly support the newspecies as an independent evolutionary lineage within Diporiphora. In addition, the molecular data also showed that thereis far greater diversity in Diporiphora winneckei sensu lato than was anticipated. Our results clearly indicate that there are at least three independent evolutionary lineages of D. winneckei-like dragons.