Search

Virus infection involves the manipulation of key host cell functions by specialized virulence proteins. The SARS-CoV-2 small accessory proteins ORF3a and ORF7a have been implicated in favoring virus replication and spreading by inhibiting the autophagic flux within the host cell. Here, we apply yeast models to gain insights into the physiological functions of both SARS-CoV-2 small ORFs. ORF3a and ORF7a can be stably overexpressed in yeast cells, producing a decrease in cellular fitness. Both proteins show a distinguishable intracellular localization. ORF3a specifically localizes to the vacuolar membrane, whereas ORF7a targets the endoplasmic reticulum. Overexpression of ORF3a and ORF7a leads to the accumulation of Atg8 specific autophagosomes. However, the underlying mechanism is different for each viral protein as assessed by the quantification of the autophagic degradation of Atg8-GFP fusion proteins, which is inhibited by ORF3a and stimulated by ORF7a. Overexpression of both SARS-CoV-2 ORFs decreases cellular fitness upon starvation conditions, where autophagic processes become essential. These data are in agreement with a model where both small ORFs have synergistic functions in stimulating intracellular autophagosome accumulation, ORF3a by inhibiting autophagosome processing at the vacuole and ORF7a by promoting autophagosome formation at the ER. ORF3a has an additional function in Ca2+ homeostasis. The overexpression of ORF3a confers calcineurin-dependent Ca2+ tolerance and activates a Ca2+ sensitive FKS2-luciferase reporter, suggesting a possible ORF3a-mediated Ca2+ efflux from the vacuole. Taken together, we show that viral accessory proteins can be functionally investigated in yeast cells and that SARS-CoV-2 ORF3a and ORF7a proteins interfere with autophagosome formation and processing as well as with Ca2+ homeostasis from distinct cellular targets.

Optimized nutrient utilization is crucial for the progression of microorganisms in competing communities. Here we investigate how different budding yeast species and ecological isolates have established divergent preferences for two alternative sugar substrates: Glucose, which is fermented preferentially by yeast, and galactose, which is alternatively used upon induction of the relevant GAL metabolic genes. We quantified the dose-dependent induction of the GAL1 gene encoding the central galactokinase enzyme and found that a very large diversification exists between different yeast ecotypes and species. The sensitivity of GAL1 induction correlates with the growth performance of the respective yeasts with the alternative sugar. We further define some of the mechanisms, which have established different glucose/galactose consumption strategies in representative yeast strains by modulating the activity of the Gal3 inducer. (1) Optimal galactose consumers, such as Saccharomyces uvarum, contain a hyperactive GAL3 promoter, sustaining highly sensitive GAL1 expression, which is not further improved upon repetitive galactose encounters. (2) Desensitized galactose consumers, such as S. cerevisiae Y12, contain a less sensitive Gal3 sensor, causing a shift of the galactose response towards higher sugar concentrations even in galactose experienced cells. (3) Galactose insensitive sugar consumers, such as S. cerevisiae DBVPG6044, contain an interrupted GAL3 gene, causing extremely reluctant galactose consumption, which is, however, improved upon repeated galactose availability. In summary, different yeast strains and natural isolates have evolved galactose utilization strategies, which cover the whole range of possible sensitivities by modulating the expression and/or activity of the inducible galactose sensor Gal3.

Antifungal resistance is a growing concern as it poses a significant threat to public health. Fungal infections are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in immunocompromised individuals. The limited number of antifungal agents and the emergence of resistance have led to a critical need to understand the mechanisms of antifungal drug resistance. This review provides an overview of the importance of antifungal resistance, the classes of antifungal agents, and their mode of action. It highlights the molecular mechanisms of antifungal drug resistance, including alterations in drug modification, activation, and availability. In addition, the review discusses the response to drugs via the regulation of multidrug efflux systems and antifungal drug–target interactions. We emphasize the importance of understanding the molecular mechanisms of antifungal drug resistance to develop effective strategies to combat the emergence of resistance and highlight the need for continued research to identify new targets for antifungal drug development and explore alternative therapeutic options to overcome resistance. Overall, an understanding of antifungal drug resistance and its mechanisms will be indispensable for the field of antifungal drug development and clinical management of fungal infections.

Aging is considered the deterioration of physiological functions along with an increased mortality rate. This scientific review focuses on the central importance of genomic instability during the aging process, encompassing a range of cellular and molecular changes that occur with advancing age. In particular, this revision addresses the genetic and epigenetic alterations that contribute to genomic instability, such as telomere shortening, DNA damage accumulation, and decreased DNA repair capacity. Furthermore, the review explores the epigenetic changes that occur with aging, including modifications to histones, DNA methylation patterns, and the role of non-coding RNAs. Finally, the review discusses the organization of chromatin and its contribution to genomic instability, including heterochromatin loss, chromatin remodeling, and changes in nucleosome and histone abundance. In conclusion, this review highlights the fundamental role that genomic instability plays in the aging process and underscores the need for continued research into these complex biological mechanisms

Virus infection involves the manipulation of key host cell functions by specialized virulence proteins. The Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) small accessory proteins ORF3a and ORF7a have been implicated in favoring virus replication and spreading by inhibiting the autophagic flux within the host cell. Here, we apply yeast models to gain insights into the physiological functions of both SARS-CoV-2 small open reading frames (ORFs). ORF3a and ORF7a can be stably overexpressed in yeast cells, producing a decrease in cellular fitness. Both proteins show a distinguishable intracellular localization. ORF3a localizes to the vacuolar membrane, whereas ORF7a targets the endoplasmic reticulum. Overexpression of ORF3a and ORF7a leads to the accumulation of Atg8 specific autophagosomes. However, the underlying mechanism is different for each viral protein as assessed by the quantification of the autophagic degradation of Atg8-GFP fusion proteins, which is inhibited by ORF3a and stimulated by ORF7a. Overexpression of both SARS-CoV-2 ORFs decreases cellular fitness upon starvation conditions, where autophagic processes become essential. These data confirm previous findings on SARS-CoV-2 ORF3a and ORF7a manipulating autophagic flux in mammalian cell models and are in agreement with a model where both small ORFs have synergistic functions in stimulating intracellular autophagosome accumulation, ORF3a by inhibiting autophagosome processing at the vacuole and ORF7a by promoting autophagosome formation at the ER. ORF3a has an additional function in Ca2+ homeostasis. The overexpression of ORF3a confers calcineurin-dependent Ca2+ tolerance and activates a Ca2+ sensitive FKS2-luciferase reporter, suggesting a possible ORF3a-mediated Ca2+ efflux from the vacuole. Taken together, we show that viral accessory proteins can be functionally investigated in yeast cells and that SARS-CoV-2 ORF3a and ORF7a proteins interfere with autophagosome formation and processing a

Pleiotropic drug resistance arises by the enhanced extrusion of bioactive molecules and is present in a wide range of organisms, ranging from fungi to human cells. A key feature of this adaptation is the sensitive detection of intracellular xenobiotics by transcriptional activators, activating expression of multiple drug exporters. Here, we investigated the selectivity and sensitivity of the budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) multidrug response to better understand how differential drug recognition leads to specific activation of drug exporter genes and to drug resistance. Applying live-cell luciferase reporters, we demonstrate that the SNQ2, PDR5, PDR15, and YOR1 transporter genes respond to different mycotoxins, menadione, and hydrogen peroxide in a distinguishable manner and with characteristic amplitudes, dynamics, and sensitivities. These responses correlated with differential sensitivities of the respective transporter mutants to the specific xenobiotics. We further establish a binary vector system, enabling quantitative determination of xenobiotic-transcription factor (TF) interactions in real time. Applying this system we found that the TFs Pdr1, Pdr3, Yrr1, Stb5, and Pdr8 have largely different drug recognition patterns. We noted that Pdr1 is the most promiscuous activator, whereas Yrr1 and Stb5 are selective for ochratoxin A and hydrogen peroxide, respectively. We also show that Pdr1 is rapidly degraded after xenobiotic exposure, which leads to a desensitization of the Pdr1-specific response upon repeated activation. The findings of our work indicate that in the yeast multidrug system, several transcriptional activators with distinguishable selectivities trigger differential activation of the transporter genes.

Cells respond to external stimuli with transient gene expression changes in order to adapt to environmental alterations. However, the dose response profile of gene induction upon a given stress depends on many intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Here we show that the accurate quantification of dose dependent gene expression by live cell luciferase reporters reveals fundamental insights into stress signaling. We make the following discoveries applying this non-invasive reporter technology. (1) Signal transduction sensitivities can be compared and we apply this here to salt, oxidative and xenobiotic stress responsive transcription factors. (2) Stress signaling depends on where and how the damage is generated within the cell. Specifically we show that two ROS-generating agents, menadione and hydrogen peroxide, differ in their dependence on mitochondrial respiration. (3) Stress signaling is conditioned by the cells history. We demonstrate here that positive memory or an acquired resistance towards oxidative stress is induced dependent on the nature of the previous stress experience. (4) The metabolic state of the cell impinges on the sensitivity of stress signaling. This is shown here for the shift towards higher stress doses of the response profile for yeast cells moved from complex to synthetic medium. (5) The age of the cell conditions its transcriptional response capacity, which is demonstrated by the changes of the dose response to oxidative stress during both replicative and chronological aging. We conclude that capturing dose dependent gene expression in real time will be of invaluable help to understand stress signaling and its dynamic modulation.

The regulation of gene expression is a fundamental process enabling cells to respond to internal and external stimuli or to execute developmental programs. Changes in gene expression are highly dynamic and depend on many intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In this review, we highlight the dynamic nature of transient gene expression changes to better understand cell physiology and development in general. We will start by comparing recent in vivo procedures to capture gene expression in real time. Intrinsic factors modulating gene expression dynamics will then be discussed, focusing on chromatin modifications. Furthermore, we will dissect how cell physiology or age impacts on dynamic gene regulation and especially discuss molecular insights into acquired transcriptional memory. Finally, this review will give an update on the mechanisms of heterogeneous gene expression among genetically identical individual cells. We will mainly focus on state-of-the-art developments in the yeast model but also cover higher eukaryotic systems.

Here, we review and update the recent advances in the metabolic control during the adaptive response of budding yeast to hyperosmotic and salt stress, which is one of the best understood signaling events at the molecular level. This environmental stress can be easily applied and hence has been exploited in the past to generate an impressively detailed and comprehensive model of cellular adaptation. It is clear now that this stress modulates a great number of different physiological functions of the cell, which altogether contribute to cellular survival and adaptation. Primary defense mechanisms are the massive induction of stress tolerance genes in the nucleus, the activation of cation transport at the plasma membrane, or the production and intracellular accumulation of osmolytes. At the same time and in a coordinated manner, the cell shuts down the expression of housekeeping genes, delays the progression of the cell cycle, inhibits genomic replication, and modulates translation efficiency to optimize the response and to avoid cellular damage. To this fascinating interplay of cellular functions directly regulated by the stress, we have to add yet another layer of control, which is physiologically relevant for stress tolerance. Salt stress induces an immediate metabolic readjustment, which includes the up-regulation of peroxisomal biomass and activity in a coordinated manner with the reinforcement of mitochondrial respiratory metabolism. Our recent findings are consistent with a model, where salt stress triggers a metabolic shift from fermentation to respiration fueled by the enhanced peroxisomal oxidation of fatty acids. We discuss here the regulatory details of this stress-induced metabolic shift and its possible roles in the context of the previously known adaptive functions.

[EN] In the present thesis, we have studied the different toxicity mechanisms of the mycotoxins citrinin and ochratoxin A and the adaptive response to xenobiotics in the yeast model of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, specifically the regulation of the multidrug transporters of the PDR network and its transcription factors. The response to xenobiotics allows eukaryotic cells to adapt and survive the exposure to a wide variety of exogenous compounds, such as toxins or drugs. Different types of proteins participate in this response, mainly membrane transporters and transcription factors. To study this adaptive response we subjected the yeast cells to different treatments with the mycotoxins citrinin (CIT) and ochratoxin A (OTA), and oxidants menadione (MEN), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The mycotoxins CIT and OTA are secondary metabolites produced by several filamentous fungi, which contaminate staple foods and which are toxic to humans. Here, we studied their toxicity mechanisms through gene expression experiments with luciferase reporters, transcriptomic assays, and phenotypic assays with loss-of-function mutants for certain proteins involved in antioxidant defense and multidrug transport. The results show differences in the mechanisms of toxicity between both mycotoxins. CIT induces the expression of genes involved in drug transport and the response to oxidative stress, whereas OTA activates, mainly, the expression of genes involved in development, such as meiosis or sporulation, and to a lesser extent, genes related to response to oxidative stress and multidrug transport. In yeast, multidrug transporters of the plasma membrane that remove toxic compounds from the cell are part of the PDR (pleiotropic drug resistance) network. This system is composed of proteins conserved from bacteria to humans, such as multidrug transporters and transcription factors. When these transporters are overexpressed, it leads to a phenomenon known as pleiotropic drug resistance (PDR) or multi, Pdr15 seems to act as a secondary transporter. Moreover, the regulation of these three transporters upon exposure to CIT is directed by the transcription factor Pdr1. SNQ2 is the only one of the four transporters that is induced by treating cells with H2O2. Pdr1 activates the transcription of genes in response to CIT and OTA through specific PDRE sites, while Pdr8 and Yrm1, appear to act as negative regulators in response to CIT. Finally, we developed a binary plasmid system that allows us to define the different sensitivities and specificity to drugs by the transcription factors individually. Pdr1 is able to recognize and induce the activation of gene expression in all treatments, albeit very slightly with H2O2. Yrr1 shows induction of gene expression with CIT and, especially, OTA, indicating its ability to discriminate between these molecules. Finally, Stb5 recognizes and induces gene expression in H2O2 treatment at a higher level than Pdr1. These results show an important level of regulation of the PDR network, with Pdr1 as the main transcription factor, but with the cooperation of more specific regulators., [ES] En la presente tesis se han estudiado los distintos mecanismos de toxicidad de las micotoxinas citrinina y ocratoxina A y la respuesta adaptativa a xenobióticos en el modelo de levadura Saccharomyces cerevisiae, concretamente la regulación de los transportadores multidrogas del sistema PDR y sus factores de transcripción. La respuesta a xenobióticos permite a las células eucariotas adaptarse y sobrevivir a la exposición de gran variedad de compuestos exógenos, como toxinas o fármacos. En esta respuesta participan distintos tipos de proteínas, principalmente transportadores de membrana y factores de transcripción. Para estudiar esta respuesta adaptativa sometimos las células de levadura a distintos tratamientos con las micotoxinas citrinina (CIT) y ocratoxina A (OTA), y los oxidantes menadiona (MEN), y peróxido de hidrógeno (H2O2). Las micotoxinas CIT y OTA son metabolitos secundarios producidos por hongos filamentosos que contaminan alimentos básicos y que son tóxicas para el ser humano. Aquí, estudiamos sus mecanismos de toxicidad a través de experimentos de expresión génica con reporteros luciferasa, ensayos transcriptómicos, y ensayos fenotípicos con mutantes de pérdida de función para determinadas proteínas involucradas en la defensa antioxidante y de transporte multidroga. Los resultados muestran diferencia de los mecanismos de toxicidad entre ambas micotoxinas. CIT induce la expresión de genes involucrados en el transporte de drogas y la respuesta a estrés oxidativo, mientras que OTA activa, principalmente, la expresión de genes implicados en el desarrollo, como meiosis o esporulación, y en menor medida, genes relacionados con la respuesta a estrés oxidativo y al transporte multidroga. En levadura, los transportadores multidroga de la membrana plasmática que eliminan compuestos tóxicos de la célula forman parte del sistema PDR (pleiotropic drug resistance). Este sistema está compuesto por proteínas conservadas de bacterias a humanos, como transportadores, Este proceso de resistencia es de gran importancia en diversos tratamientos médicos, como quimioterapia en cáncer, o antifúngicos, ya que disminuyen su eficiencia. Aquí, hemos estudiado el funcionamiento del sistema PDR en levadura de varios transportadores multidroga (Pdr5, Pdr15, Snq2, y Yor1) y factores de transcripción (Pdr1, Pdr3, Pdr8, Yrm1, Yrr1, y Stb5) mediante cuantificación de expresión luciferasa. Los resultados muestran que, de entre los transportadores estudiados, Pdr5 y Snq2 son los principales en la respuesta de adaptación frente a CIT, OTA y MEN, mientras que Pdr15 parece actuar como un transportador secundario. Además, la regulación de estos tres transportadores ante la exposición de CIT está dirigida por el factor de transcripción Pdr1. SNQ2 es el único de los cuatro transportadores que se induce al tratar las células con H2O2. Pdr1 activa la transcripción de genes en respuesta a CIT y OTA a través de los sitios específicos PDRE, mientras que Pdr8 e Yrm1, parecen actuar como reguladores negativos en respuesta a CIT. Por último, desarrollamos un sistema binario de plásmidos que nos permite definir las distintas sensibilidades y especificidad a drogas por parte de los factores de transcripción de forma individual. Pdr1 es capaz de reconocer e inducir la activación de la expresión génica en todos los tratamientos, aunque levemente con H2O2. Yrr1 presenta inducción de la expresión génica ante CIT y, especialmente, OTA, indicando su capacidad de discriminación entre estas moléculas. Por último, Stb5 reconoce e induce la expresión génica en el tratamiento con H2O2 en mayor nivel que Pdr1. Los resultados muestran un alto nivel de regulación del sistema PDR, con Pdr1 como factor de transcripción pr

Repair and removal of damaged mitochondria is a key process for eukaryotic cell homeostasis. Here we investigate in the yeast model how different protein complexes of the mitochondrial electron transport chain are subject to specific degradation upon high respiration load and organelle damage. We find that the turnover of subunits of the electron transport complex I equivalent and complex III is preferentially stimulated upon high respiration rates. Particular mitochondrial proteases, but not mitophagy, are involved in this activated degradation. Further mitochondrial damage by valinomycin treatment of yeast cells triggers the mitophagic removal of the same respiratory complexes. This selective protein degradation depends on the mitochondrial fusion and fission apparatus and the autophagy adaptor protein Atg11, but not on the mitochondrial mitophagy receptor Atg32. Loss of autophagosomal protein function leads to valinomycin sensitivity and an overproduction of reactive oxygen species upon mitochondrial damage. A specific event in this selective turnover of electron transport chain complexes seems to be the association of Atg11 with the mitochondrial network, which can be achieved by overexpression of the Atg11 protein even in the absence of Atg32. Furthermore, the interaction of various Atg11 molecules via the C-terminal coil domain is specifically and rapidly stimulated upon mitochondrial damage and could therefore be an early trigger of selective mitophagy in response to the organelles dysfunction. Our work indicates that autophagic quality control upon mitochondrial damage operates in a selective manner.

Sphingolipids are regulators of mitochondria-mediated cell death in higher eukaryotes. Here, we investigate how changes in sphingolipid metabolism and downstream intermediates of sphingosine impinge on mitochondrial function. We found in yeast that within the sphingolipid degradation pathway, the production via Dpl1p and degradation via Hfd1p of hexadecenal are critical for mitochondrial function and cell death. Genetic interventions, which favor hexadecenal accumulation, diminish oxygen consumption rates and increase reactive oxygen species production and mitochondrial fragmentation and vice versa. The location of the hexadecenal-degrading enzyme Hfd1p in punctuate structures all along the mitochondrial network depends on a functional ERMES (endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria encounter structure) complex, indicating that modulation of hexadecenal levels at specific ER-mitochondria contact sites might be an important trigger of cell death. This is further supported by the finding that externally added hexadecenal or the absence of Hfd1p enhances cell death caused by ectopic expression of the human Bax protein. Finally, the induction of the sphingolipid degradation pathway upon stress is controlled by the Hog1p MAP kinase. Therefore, the stress-regulated modulation of sphingolipid degradation might be a conserved way to induce cell death in eukaryotic organisms.

Peroxisomes and mitochondria are the main intracellular sources for reactive oxygen species. At the same time, both organelles are critical for the maintenance of a healthy redox balance in the cell. Consequently, failure in the function of both organelles is causally linked to oxidative stress and accelerated aging. However, it has become clear that peroxisomes and mitochondria are much more intimately connected both physiologically and structurally. Both organelles share common fission components to dynamically respond to environmental cues, and the autophagic turnover of both peroxisomes and mitochondria is decisive for cellular homeostasis. Moreover, peroxisomes can physically associate with mitochondria via specific protein complexes. Therefore, the structural and functional connection of both organelles is a critical and dynamic feature in the regulation of oxidative metabolism, whose dynamic nature will be revealed in the future. In this review, we will focus on fundamental aspects of the peroxisome-mitochondria interplay derived from simple models such as yeast and move onto discussing the impact of an impaired peroxisomal and mitochondrial homeostasis on ROS production, aging, and disease in humans.

[EN] Eukaryotic cells adapt to environmental changes ("stress") through signal transduction pathways which coordinate complex adaptive responses. Mitochondria are able to respond to different external stimuli in a dynamic manner. In previous studies, mitochondria were shown to play an important role in adaptation to hyperosmotic stress and defects in many mitochondrial functions cause sensitivity to this stress. In the present work, we investigate novel mechanisms of mitochondrial adaptation in response to stress. First of all, the role of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier complex (MPC) in this adaptation was analyzed. This carrier is composed by three proteins in yeast: Mpc1, Mpc2 and Mpc3. MPC3 is upregulated upon salt stress and during a diauxic shift, which leads to an increase in Mpc3 protein abundance. HOG pathway, implicated in osmostress response, is needed for the efficient induction of MPC3 transcription. Our analysis suggests that amino acid biosynthesis, respiration rate and oxidative stress tolerance are regulated by changes in the Mpc protein composition of the mitochondria. In this way, Mpc2 is most abundant under fermentative non stress conditions and important for amino acid biosynthesis, while Mpc3 is the most abundant family member upon salt stress or when high respiration rates are required. In addition, Mpc3 stimulates respiration and enhances tolerance to oxidative stress. Therefore, our results identify that the regulated mitochondrial pyruvate uptake via different Mpc proteins might be an important determinant of respiration rate and stress resistance. Secondly, since pyruvate flux to mitochondria is modified according to environmental conditions, here we study also possible changes in electron transport chain complex subunits. We found that a switch to partially or completely respiratory energy sources causes selective degradation of respiratory complex I and III subunits. Moreover, this degradation was also observed when there was a specif, [ES] Las células eucariotas responden a cambios en su entorno ("estrés") a través de rutas de transmisión de señales que coordinan respuestas adaptativas muy complejas. Las mitocondrias son orgánulos muy dinámicos capaces de responder a diversos estímulos externos. En estudios anteriores, se demostró que la mitocondria tiene un papel en la adaptación a estrés hiperosmótico, ya que los mutantes con defectos en diversos componentes mitocondriales muestran mayor sensibilidad a este estrés. En este trabajo, se ha investigado nuevos mecanismos de adaptación de la actividad mitocondrial en respuesta a estrés. Por una parte, se ha estudiado el papel del complejo transportador de piruvato mitocondrial (MPC) en esta adaptación. Este transportador está conformado por tres proteínas en levadura: Mpc1, Mpc2 y Mpc3. El gen MPC3 sufre una fuerte inducción transcripcional en condiciones de estrés osmótico y cambio diáuxico, que se traduce en un aumento de la cantidad de proteína Mpc3. Esta regulación se vio que dependía de la ruta HOG, implicada en la respuesta a estrés osmótico, y no ocurría en Mpc1 y Mpc2. Se comprobó, además, que los cambios en la composición de MPC en la mitocondria regulaban la biosíntesis de aminoácidos, la capacidad respiratoria y la tolerancia a estrés oxidativo de la célula. De esta forma, Mpc2 es la proteína más abundante en condiciones fermentativas sin estrés y es necesaria para la biosíntesis de aminoácidos; mientras que Mpc3 es el miembro más abundante ante estrés salino o cuando se requiere una elevada tasa respiratoria. Además, Mpc3 estimula la respiración y aumenta la tolerancia a estrés oxidativo. Por tanto, nuestros resultados identifican que la entrada de piruvato en la mitocondria y su posterior uso están regulados por la composición específica de las subunidades del transportador y determina la tasa respiratoria y la resistencia a estrés. Por otra parte, dado que el flujo de piruvato a la mitocondria se modificaba en función de las condicione

Citrinin (CIT) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are important mycotoxins, which frequently co-contaminate foodstuff. In order to assess the toxicologic threat posed by the two mycotoxins separately or in combination, their biological effects were studied here using genomic transcription profiling and specific live cell gene expression reporters in yeast cells. Both CIT and OTA cause highly transient transcriptional activation of different stress genes, which is greatly enhanced by the disruption of the multidrug exporter Pdr5. Therefore, we performed genome-wide transcription profiling experiments with the pdr5 mutant in response to acute CIT, OTA, or combined CIT/OTA exposure. We found that CIT and OTA activate divergent and largely nonoverlapping gene sets in yeast. CIT mainly caused the rapid induction of antioxidant and drug extrusion-related gene functions, while OTA mainly deregulated developmental genes related with yeast sporulation and sexual reproduction, having only a minor effect on the antioxidant response. The simultaneous exposure to CIT and OTA gave rise to a genomic response, which combined the specific features of the separated mycotoxin treatments. The application of stress-specific mutants and reporter gene fusions further confirmed that both mycotoxins have divergent biological effects in cells. Our results indicate that CIT exposure causes a strong oxidative stress, which triggers a massive transcriptional antioxidant and drug extrusion response, while OTA mainly deregulates developmental genes and only marginally induces the antioxidant defense.

Cells respond to environmental stimuli by fine-tuned regulation of gene expression. Here we investigated the dose-dependent modulation of gene expression at high temporal resolution in response to nutrient and stress signals in yeast. The GAL1 activity in cell populations is modulated in a well-defined range of galactose concentrations, correlating with a dynamic change of histone remodeling and RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) association. This behavior is the result of a heterogeneous induction delay caused by decreasing inducer concentrations across the population. Chromatin remodeling appears to be the basis for the dynamic GAL1 expression, because mutants with impaired histone dynamics show severely truncated dose-response profiles. In contrast, the GRE2 promoter operates like a rapid off/on switch in response to increasing osmotic stress, with almost constant expression rates and exclusively temporal regulation of histone remodeling and RNAPII occupancy. The Gal3 inducer and the Hog1 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase seem to determine the different dose-response strategies at the two promoters. Accordingly, GAL1 becomes highly sensitive and dose independent if previously stimulated because of residual Gal3 levels, whereas GRE2 expression diminishes upon repeated stimulation due to acquired stress resistance. Our analysis reveals important differences in the way dynamic signals create dose-sensitive gene expression outputs.