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An electroantennogram (EAG) technique compared the antennal olfactory responses by both sexes of eight Japanese Papilio species with known host plants in laboratory experiments. Papilio species were collected from Honshû and Kyûshû (Japanese islands). The behavioral responses to volatile leaf substances from Citrus deliciosa, Zanthoxylum ailanthoides, Phellodendron amurense, Orixa japonica, and Foeniculum vulgare were examined in laboratory experiments. Individual EAG reactions were recorded. The results were very similar to the empirical field observations. The electrophysiological results of both sexes showed that the volatile substances released from non-preferred plants mainly elicited more significant EAG responses than the volatile substances from preferred host plants. Moreover, we performed behavioral experiments using eight female butterflies and their responses to five host plant species. An association between host plant selection behavior and taxonomical classification exists within the Papilio genus. The EAG responses were small when exposed to the plants with high scores in the behavioral experiments. Host plant preference patterns seem to be related to the volatile substances within the host plants. The butterflies responded to Linalool in both the behavioral and electrophysiological experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Papilio genus, known for its ecological and phenotypic diversity, is a valuable model for evolutionary studies. This study conducted a comparative genomic analysis of 11 Papilio species, revealing species-specific gene family expansions, including the UDP-glucosyltransferase 2 gene associated with insect detoxification, particularly expanding in Papilio polyxenes. Our analysis also revealed 199 horizontal gene transfer (HGT) acquired genes from 76 microbial species, with Pseudomonadota and Bacillota as common HGT donors across these genomes. Furthermore, we examined the evolutionary patterns of nine ABC transporter subfamilies, uncovering potential links between gene family evolution and environmental adaptation. This study provides new insights into evolutionary relationships and genomic adaptations within the Papilio genus, contributing to broader butterfly evolutionary research. • We predicted the divergence times of 11 Papilio species, calculated the synonymous substitution rates (Ks) of orthologous and paralogous genes to infer whole-genome duplication (WGD) events shared among them. We analyzed the significant expansions, contractions, and specific gene families of each species within the Papilio genus, elucidating the evolutionary relationships among species and highlighting both commonalities and distinct features among them. • We identified horizontal gene transfer (HGT) acquired genes within the Papilio genus and found that Papilio have acquired genes advantageous for digesting food. • We analyzed the evolutionary patterns of the ABC transporters as an example, revealing significant differences among different species within the Papilio genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biogeographic patterns are reviewed for four widespread Southeast Asia butterfly groups in the superfamily Papilionoidea: Papilio subgenus Achillides Hübner, 1819 (Papilionidae), the birdwing butterflies (Papilionidae tribe Troidini), Genus Polyura Billberg, 1820 (Nymphalidae), and Genus Vanessa Fabricius, 1807 (Nymphalidae). The patterns of allopatry and sympatry are shown to be consistent with the vicariance of widespread ancestors with distributions including parts of Asia and Australasia, followed by secondary range expansion. Aspects of the distributions that are correlated with tectonic structures provide evidence of the age and origin of these butterflies in South-east Asia and Australasia. The transpacific affinities of the Troidini are consistent with a Pacific ancestry linked with former Cretaceous landscapes. The multi-island ranges of many of the butterfly species in Southeast Asia represent examples of metapopulation structure in which groups survive and persist in a region over long periods of time, even where individual islands are ephemeral.

Successful conservation of butterflies is dependent on knowing which larval foodplants they use. However, many published lists of larval foodplants have been copied from previous lists, which in turn have been copied from previous lists. Consequently, errors have crept in, and many plant names have long been superseded. This can result in duplicates in the list, with the same plant being given two different names. Most plant lists do not include the authority, which can make it difficult or impossible to identify which plant is being referred to. For the first time, a list of the current accepted plant names utilised by 471 European butterfly larvae is presented, with references. Where possible, errors in previous lists have been removed. The list of larval foodplants doubled from previous published lists. This has resulted in a list of 1506 different plant species in 72 different families. 86 plant records are only known at the generic level. Larval foodplants of 25 butterfly species are currently unknown. Whilst most plant families are utilised by less than six butterfly species, a few plant families are particularly favoured, with the Poaceae and Fabaceae being the most popular. Similarly, most plant species are only utilised by a few butterfly species, but Festuca ovina and Festuca rubra are favoured by a large number of butterfly species. 20% of European butterfly larvae are monophagous, 50% are oligophagous, and 30% are polyphagous, with Celastrina argiolus able to use plants in 19 different families.

Moth-eye nanostructures, known for their biological antireflective properties, are formed by a self-assembly mechanism. Understanding and replicating this mechanism on artificial surfaces open avenues for the engineering of bioinspired multifunctional nanomaterials. Analysis of corneal nanocoatings from butterflies of the genus Papilio reveals a variety of nanostructures with uniformly strong antiwetting properties accompanied by varying antireflective functionalities. Interestingly, while the structural features of the nanocoatings determine the antireflective functionality, the antiwetting is controlled by their chemical composition, an unusual trait among insects. The availability of whole-genome sequences for several Papilio species allowed us to identify the corneal proteome, including the protein responsible for the nanocoating assembly, CPR67A. The high hydrophobicity of this protein, coupled with its capacity to mediate self-assembly, underlies the formation of unique multifunctional Papilio nanostructures and permits the development of bioinspired artificial nanocoatings. Our findings pave the way for biomimetic nanomaterials and guide the engineering of nanostructures with predefined functionalities.

The I P. glaucus i had the lowest scaffold N50 value (0.23 Mb) among six I Papilio i species ( I P. dardanus i : N50 = 0.60 Mb; I P. machaon i : N50 = 1.15 Mb; I P. polytes i : N50 = 3.70 Mb; I P. memnon i : N50 = 5.50 Mb and I P. xuthus i : N50 = 6.20 Mb) [[41], [43], [45]]. Together, this study comprehensively analyzed and compared the OR and GR gene families in six I Papilio i butterflies and provides reference data for further exploring the roles of ORs and GRs in I P. xuthus i associated with olfaction, oviposition and reproduction. The sizes of their GR repertoires (49-61 relatives) were similar to those in the monophagous or oligophagous herbivores I B. mori i (76 GRs) [[47]], I M. sexta i (45 GRs) [[26]], I P. xylostella i (69 GRs) [[11]], I D i I . plexippus i (59 GRs) [[49]] and I H i I . melpomene i (73 GRs) [[48]]. Data Availability Statement All nucleotide sequences identified in this study have been deposited in the National Center of Biotechnology Information (NCBI) GenBank database, with accession numbers OP197207-OP197270 for I P. dardanus i ORs, OP197271-OP197328 for I P. glaucus i ORs, OP197329-OP197388 for I P. machaon i ORs, OP197389-OP197454 for I P. memnon i ORs, OP197455-OP197521 for I P. polytes i ORs, OP197522-OP197580 for I P. xuthus i ORs, OP197581-OP197637 for I P. dardanus i GRs, OP197638-OP197682 for I P. glaucus i GRs, OP197683-OP197736 for I P. machaon i GRs, OP197737-OP197796 for I P. memnon i GRs, OP197797-OP197857 for I P. polytes i GRs and OP197858-OP197906 for I P. xuthus i GRs. The numbers of GRs identified from I P. glaucus i , I P. xuthus i , I P. machaon i , I P. dardanus i , I P. polytes i and I P. memnon i were 45, 49, 54, 58, 61 and 61, respectively. [Extracted from the article]

This thematic section editorial gives an overview of the three related articles introducing the programs Papilio-3to6, Papilio-U3, and Papilio-6to9. The essential, connecting elements are presented (developmentally appropriate prevention, social-emotional learning [SEL], and developmentally appropriate practice) and the relation between the three programs is explained in the context of an overarching educational approach from 0 to 9 to early childhood education and care (ECEC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Butterflies have evolved a diversity of color patterns, but the ecological functions for most of these patterns are still poorly understood. The Banded Swallowtail butterfly, Papilio demolion demolion, is a mostly black butterfly with a greenish‐blue band that traverses the wings. The function of this wing pattern remains unknown. Here, we examined the morphology of black and green‐blue colored scales, and how the color and banding pattern affects predation risk in the wild. The protective benefits of the transversal band and of its green‐blue color were tested via the use of paper model replicas of the Banded Swallowtail with variations in band shape and band color in a full factorial design. A variant model where the continuous transversal green‐blue band was shifted and made discontinuous tested the protective benefit of the transversal band, while grayscale variants of the wildtype and distorted band models assessed the protective benefit of the green‐blue color. Paper models of the variants and the wildtype were placed simultaneously in the field with live baits. Wildtype models were the least preyed upon compared with all other variants, while gray models with distorted bands suffered the greatest predation. The color and the continuous band of the Banded Swallowtail hence confer antipredator qualities. We propose that the shape of the band hinders detection of the butterfly's true shape through coincident disruptive coloration; while the green color of the band prevents detection of the butterfly from its background via differential blending. Differential blending is aided by the green‐blue color being due to pigments rather than via structural coloration. Both green and black scales have identical structures, and the scales follow the Bauplan of pigmented scales documented in other Papilio butterflies.

The chemical interactions of insects and host plants are shaping the evolution of chemosensory receptor gene families. However, the correlation between host range and chemoreceptor gene repertoire sizes is still elusive in Papilionidae. Here, we addressed the issue of whether host plant diversities are correlated with the expansions of odorant (ORs) or gustatory (GRs) receptors in six Papilio butterflies. By combining genomics, transcriptomics and bioinformatics approaches, 381 ORs and 328 GRs were annotated in the genomes of a generalist P. glaucus and five specialists, P. xuthus, P. polytes, P. memnon, P. machaon and P. dardanus. Orthologous ORs or GRs in Papilio had highly conserved gene structure. Five Papilio specialists exhibited a similar frequency of intron lengths for ORs or GRs, but which was different from those in the generalist. Phylogenetic analysis revealed 60 orthologous OR groups, 45 of which shared one-to-one relationships. Such a single gene in each butterfly also occurred in 26 GR groups. Intriguingly, bitter GRs had fewer introns than other GRs and clustered into a large clade. Focusing on the two chemoreceptor gene families in P. xuthus, most PxutORs (52/58) were expressed in antennae and 31 genes in reproductive tissues. Eleven out of 28 foretarsus-expressed PxutGRs were female-biased genes, as strong candidates for sensing oviposition stimulants. These results indicate that the host range may not shape the large-scale expansions of ORs and GRs in Papilio butterflies and identify important molecular targets involved in olfaction, oviposition or reproduction in P. xuthus.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers are ideal for evolutionary studies, including phylogeography, population genetics, phylogeny, etc. However, different mitochondrial genes always own different evolutionary rate. In this study, we analysed the genetic variation across the 16 complete mtDNA from 13 species in the genus Papilio and recognized the best DNA barcoding for Papilio species. The mitochondrial gene arrangement for each species shares a similar order, similar to the typical Papilionidae species, which indicated the relatively conservative state of gene arrangement in Papilio. The sliding window of genetic diversity showed that there was a significant difference in the genetic diversity of each gene in the mitochondrial genome of Papilio. The relatively mean clock rate of the ND1 was broadly lower than the other genes in mitochondrial genome of Papilio; while the ATP8 owns the largest values of mean clock rate. Those results suggested that the rate of evolution of each gene is not balanced and all mitochondrial genes except ND1 and ATP8 could act as barcoding for the identification of Papilio species. The phylogenetic analyses of complete mtDNA data for 13 Papilio species divided them into five major branches, which keep the same topological structure with previous studies.

Herbivorous insects are thought to have evolved counteradaptations to conquer chemical defenses in their host plants in a stepwise co-evolutionary process. Papilio butterflies use CYP6B gene family members to metabolize furanocoumarins in their Rutaceae or Apiaceae host plants. CYP6Bs have functionally diverged among Papilio species to be able to metabolite diverse types of furanocoumarins in their host plants. In this study, we examined the diversification and selection patterns of CYP6B among nine Papilio species in Japan (eight Rutaceae specialists and one Apiaceae specialist) and their association with host plant spectra and furanocoumarin profiles. We compared host plant spectrum of eight Rutaceae feeding Papilio species and also performed a furanocoumarin profiling of their host plants. In addition, we reconstructed CYP6B gene phylogeny and performed selection analysis based on the transcriptome data of those nine Papilio species. Among Rutaceae-feeding Papilio species, host plant spectrum differences were correlated with their furanocoumarin profiles. However, all tested Papilio species had similar duplicated sets of CYP6B, with no apparent lineage-specific or host plant-specific pattern of CYP6B diversification. Selection analysis showed a signature of positive selection on a CYP6B branch. The positively selected sites located at predicted substrate recognition sites and we also found that these CYP6B genes were observed only in Rutaceae-feeding species. These findings indicate that most CYP6B diversification occurred in ancestral species of these Papilio species, possibly in association with specific host plant chemical defenses and subsequent gene loss due to host specialization. These processes would have shaped the complex diversification patterns of the CYP6B gene family in Papilio butterflies. Our results also show potentially important CYP6B clades among Papilio species which likely to have diverged functions and associated with host plant phytochemicals in ancestral Papilio species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author discusses his interest in raising butterflies due to concern over the environment and the alarming insect declines. Topics mentioned include the author's role as membership chairman for the American Killifish Association, the challenge of shipping anything in liquid such as fish in water after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, and the challenges of raising butterflies.

This study focuses on species diversity of butterflies in the genera Euploea and Papilio in Nam Nao National Park. The butterflies were investigated every month for one year using insect nets. A total of 11 species, belonging to 2 genera and 2 families, were found. These were E. algea, E. camaralzeman, E. core, E. midamus, E. mulciber, E. radamanthus, E. sylvester, P. helenus, P. memnon, P. nephelus, and P. paris. The structure of the wing scales in different colour areas of 9 species was studied using a stereo microscope and a scanning electron microscope. The general structure of the wing scales of the butterflies of genus Euploea, independent of the colour it produces, is of longitudinal ridges, composed of tilted scutes, cross ribs that connect the ridges, and trabeculae, which link the cross ribs to the membrane of the wing scale's upper lamina. In the Papilio species, there are 2 types of wing scales: one that exhibits blue- green iridescence and has wide-spaced ridges with concavities in between; and one displaying white, black, yellow, and red and has smaller widths between the ridges, with the space in between them containing a reticular pattern of cross ribs. The study of the wing scale microstructure of the butterflies in the Euploea and Papilio genera indicates that the patterns of the wing scale structure are genus-specific and that, despite showing similar colours, the wing scales are equipped with different mechanisms exemplifying diversity in structural coloration in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Butterflies have evolved a diversity of color patterns, but the ecological functions for most of these patterns are still poorly understood. The Banded Swallowtail butterfly, Papilio demolion demolion, is a mostly black butterfly with a greenish‐blue band that traverses the wings. The function of this wing pattern remains unknown. Here, we examined the morphology of black and green‐blue colored scales, and how the color and banding pattern affects predation risk in the wild. The protective benefits of the transversal band and of its green‐blue color were tested via the use of paper model replicas of the Banded Swallowtail with variations in band shape and band color in a full factorial design. A variant model where the continuous transversal green‐blue band was shifted and made discontinuous tested the protective benefit of the transversal band, while grayscale variants of the wildtype and distorted band models assessed the protective benefit of the green‐blue color. Paper models of the variants and the wildtype were placed simultaneously in the field with live baits. Wildtype models were the least preyed upon compared with all other variants, while gray models with distorted bands suffered the greatest predation. The color and the continuous band of the Banded Swallowtail hence confer antipredator qualities. We propose that the shape of the band hinders detection of the butterfly's true shape through coincident disruptive coloration; while the green color of the band prevents detection of the butterfly from its background via differential blending. Differential blending is aided by the green‐blue color being due to pigments rather than via structural coloration. Both green and black scales have identical structures, and the scales follow the Bauplan of pigmented scales documented in other Papilio butterflies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study intends to study species diversity of butterflies in the genus Euploea and Papilio in Nam Nao National Park. The butterflies were investigated every month for one year using insect net. A total of 11 species belonging to two genera, and two families were found. These included E. algea, E. camaralzeman, E. core, E. midamus, E. mulciber, E. radamanthus, and E. sylvester as well as P. helenus, P. memnon, P. nephelus, and P. paris. The structure of the wing scales in different colour areas of nine species were studied by a stereo microscope and scanning electron microscope. The general structure of the wing scales of the butterflies of the genus Euploea, independent of the colour it produces, is of longitudinal ridges, composed of tilted scutes, cross ribs that connect the ridges and trabeculae, which link the cross ribs to the membrane of the wing scale’s upper lamina. In Papilio species, there are two types of wing scales, the one that exhibits blue-green iridescence has wide-spaced ridges with concavities in between; while, the one displaying white, black, yellow and red has smaller widths between the ridges and the space in between them contains a reticular pattern of cross ribs. The study of the wing scale microstructure of the butterflies in the Euploea and Papilio genera indicates that the patterns of the wing scale structure are genus-specific and that, despite showing similar colours, the wing scales are equipped with different mechanisms exemplifying the diversity in structural coloration.

The swallowtail butterfly Papilio xuthus can perceive the linear polarization of light. Using a novel polarization projection system, we recently demonstrated that P. xuthus can detect visual motion based on polarization contrast. In the present study, we attempt to infer via behavioural experiments the mechanism underlying this polarizationbased motion vision. Papilio xuthus do not perceive contrast between unpolarized and diagonally polarized light, implying that they cannot unambiguously estimate angle and degree of polarization, at least as far as motion detection is concerned. Furthermore, they conflate brightness and polarization cues, such that bright vertically polarized light resembles dim unpolarized light. These observations are consistent with a one-channel 'monopolatic' detector mechanism. We extend our existing model of motion vision in P. xuthus to incorporate these polarization findings, and conclude that the photoreceptors likely to form the basis for the putative monopolatic polarization detector are R3 and R4, which respond maximally to horizontally polarized green light. R5-R8, we propose, form a polarization-insensitive secondary channel tuned to longer wavelengths of light. Consistent with this account, we see greater sensitivity to polarization for green-light stimuli than for subjectively equiluminant red ones. Somewhat counter-intuitively, our model predicts greatest sensitivity to vertically polarized light; owing to the non-linearity of photoreceptor responses, light polarized to an angle orthogonal to a monopolatic detector's orientation offers the greatest contrast with unpolarized light. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The butterfly, citrus swallowtail Papilio demoleus L. is an important pest in nursery and young citrus trees in Iran and worldwide. It has received considerable attention among researchers. Here, we studied the physiological parameters of P. demoleus L. (Lepidoptera: papilionidae) fed on four varieties of citrus (i. e. Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck, C. limon (L.) Burm.f., C. sinensis var. valencia, C. paradise Macfad.). The study was carried out under laboratory conditions (24±2°C, 65±10% RH and 16 h photoperiod). The 5th instar larvae showed highest relative consumption rate (RCR) by feeding on C. limon. The highest relative growth rate (RGR) (1.28±0.03) was recorded with C. sinensis. Efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI) (26.21±0.43) and Efficiency of conversion of digested food (ECD) (39.05±0.57) were highest with C. sinensis. The approximate digestibility (AD) recorded the lowest amount on C. sinensis. The highest activities of proteases were observed in the alimentary tracts of the larvae reared on C. sinensis var. valencia and C. paradisi at two different pH, pH 7 and 10. Chymotrypsin, trypsin, aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, α-glucosidase and β-glucosidase showed higher activities in larvae reared on C. paradise. While elastase and lipase showed higher activities in C. sinensis var. valencia, and α-amylase on C. sinensis. The amount of glycogen and triglyceride and total protein were higher in the hemolymph of larvae reared on C. paradisi, C. paradisi and C. sinensis var. valencia, respectively. The highest activities of gamma-glutamyntransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkalin aminoteransferase, alkaline phosphatase, acids phosphatase were observed on C. paradisi. However, the highest amount of aspartate aminotransferase was observed in C. sinensis var. valencia. Overall, these results indicate that the Citrus limon is an unsuitable host for Papilio demoleus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers are ideal for evolutionary studies, including phylogeography, population genetics, phylogeny, etc. However, different mitochondrial genes always own different evolutionary rate. In this study, we analysed the genetic variation across the 16 complete mtDNA from 13 species in the genus Papilio and recognized the best DNA barcoding for Papilio species. The mitochondrial gene arrangement for each species shares a similar order, similar to the typical Papilionidae species, which indicated the relatively conservative state of gene arrangement in Papilio. The sliding window of genetic diversity showed that there was a significant difference in the genetic diversity of each gene in the mitochondrial genome of Papilio. The relatively mean clock rate of the ND1 was broadly lower than the other genes in mitochondrial genome of Papilio; while the ATP8 owns the largest values of mean clock rate. Those results suggested that the rate of evolution of each gene is not balanced and all mitochondrial genes except ND1 and ATP8 could act as barcoding for the identification of Papilio species. The phylogenetic analyses of complete mtDNA data for 13 Papilio species divided them into five major branches, which keep the same topological structure with previous studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Histamine is the only known neurotransmitter released by arthropod photoreceptors. Synaptic transmission from photoreceptors to second-order neurons is mediated by the activation of histaminegated chloride channels (HCLs). These histaminergic synapses have been assumed to be conserved among insect visual systems. However, our understanding of the channels in question has thus far been based on studies in flies. In the butterfly Papilio xuthus, we have identified two candidate histamine-gated chloride channels, PxHCLA and PxHCLB, and studied their physiological properties using a whole-cell patch-clamp technique. We studied the responses of channels expressed in cultured cells to histamine as well as to other neurotransmitter candidates, namely GABA, tyramine, serotonin, D-/L-glutamate and glycine. We found that histamine and GABA activated both PxHCLA and PxHCLB, while the other molecules did not. The sensitivity to histamine and GABAwas consistently higher in PxHCLB than in PxHCLA. Interestingly, simultaneous application of histamine and GABA activated both PxHCLA and PxHCLB more strongly than either neurotransmitter individually; histamine and GABA may have synergistic effects on PxHCLs in the regions where they co-localize. Our results suggest that the physiological properties of the histamine receptors are basically conserved among insects, but that the response to GABA differs between butterflies and flies, implying variation in early visual processing among species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: On the island of Sardinia the lepidopteran Papilio hospiton uses Ferula communis as exclusive host plant. However, on the small island of Tavolara, adult females lay eggs on Seseli tortuosum, a plant confined to the island. When raised in captivity on Seseli only few larvae grew beyond the first–second instar. Host specificity of lepidopterans is determined by female oviposition preferences, but also by larval food acceptance, and adult and larval taste sensitivity may be related to host selection in both cases. Aim of this work was: (i) to study the taste sensitivity of larvae and ovipositing females to saps of Ferula and Seseli; (ii) to cross‐compare the spike activity of gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) to both taste stimuli; (iii) to evaluate the discriminating capability between the two saps and determine which neural code/s is/are used. The results show that: (i) the spike responses of the tarsal GRNs of adult females to both plant saps are not different and therefore they cannot discriminate the two plants; (ii) larval L‐lat GRN shows a higher activity in response to Seseli than Ferula, while the opposite occurs for the phagostimulant neurons, and larvae may discriminate between the two saps by means of multiple neural codes; (iii) the number of eggs laid on the two plants is the same, but the larval growth performance is better on Ferula than Seseli. Taste sensitivity differences may explain the absence of a positive relationship between oviposition preferences by adult females and plant acceptance and growth performance by larvae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT. Papilio hectorides larvae reared on Piper xylosteoides mostly followed a usual five-instar larval stage, but one third of the individuals underwent a supernumerary molt — the majority of which were male. The smaller size of the second instar indicated that a larva would experience a supernumerary molt. Along their development, larvae that underwent six instars showed smaller increments in head capsule size and body mass at each molt than those that experienced five instars. Nonetheless, six-instar larvae were larger at the onset of the penultimate instar, and also produced larger pupae than five-instar larvae. Adding a sixth instar predictably increased the time spent in the larval stage. A previous study showed that P. xylosteoides is a low quality larval host for P. hectorides compared to three other native plants. As larvae that underwent supernumerary molts produced large pupae, plasticity in instar number seems to allow them to compensate for lower quality food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female-limited Batesian mimicry may have evolved because of stronger predation pressure on females than on males, but some physiological costs of mimicry may also hinder the evolution of mimicry in males. In Papilio memnon , which possesses a female-limited Batesian mimicry polymorphism, two alleles at the doublesex ( dsx ) locus strictly control female phenotypes. To examine whether there are physiological costs associated with mimetic genotypes in the juvenile stage, we compered mortality, juvenile growth and development, and the resultant adult characteristics among three dsx genotypes ( HH , Hh , hh ) at a constant temperature (25 °C) and two differing day lengths (LD 14:10 and LD 12:12; the latter might induce pupal diapause) by crossing individuals heterozygous ( Hh ) for the dsx allele. All pupae emerged directly without diapause irrespective of day length. The genotype frequencies of the emerged individuals were consistent with the expected 1:2:1 ratio of HH : Hh : hh . The sex ratio was significantly male-biased in one of two families, but not in the other. We found no effect of genotype on any developmental or adult characteristic, although there were sex differences in most traits. The larval development time was longer and growth rate higher in females than in males; pupal weight, forewing length, and total dry mass of the thorax and abdomen were greater in females, whereas the thoracic mass/abdominal mass ratio was greater in males. We also found that the growth rate was higher and pupal period longer with a short day than with a long day. Overall, we found no evidence for physiological costs associated with the mimetic genotypes. However, it is too early to conclude that no physiological cost of mimicry affects the evolution and maintenance of this female-limited Batesian mimicry polymorphism because we have not studied the adults of different genotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the peripheral taste system of insects, the responsiveness of gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) depends on several factors, such as larval instar, feeding history, physiological state and time of day. To study the role of the feeding history, the spike activity of the maxillary taste chemosensilla in the larvae of two related species of Lepidoptera ( Papilio machaon L. and Papilio hospiton Géné) raised on different host plants, was recorded with electrophysiological techniques after stimulation with simple stimuli (sugars, bitters and inorganic salt) and host plant saps, with the aim of cross-comparing their response patterns and evaluating any effects of different feeding histories. For this purpose the larvae were raised each on their preferential host plant and, in addition, P. machaon larvae was also raised on Ferula communis , the host plant preferred by P. hospiton . The GRN spike activity of the lateral and medial sensilla of each test group was measured in response to simple and complex stimuli. The taste discrimination capabilities and modalities of the two species were measured and cross-compared with the aim of studying convergence and/or divergence linked to the insect feeding history. The results show that: a) the GRN responsiveness of both sensilla in P. machaon raised on Fe. communis differs significantly from that of P. machaon on Foeniculum vulgare , but is not different from P. hospiton on Fe. communis ; b) P. machaon larvae raised on Fe. communis exhibit response spectra somewhat intermediate between those of P. machaon on fennel and of P. hospiton on Fe. communis , the latter two exhibiting a wider difference from each other; c) the pattern of GRNs activity generated by each plant sap in both sensilla of P. machaon raised on Fe. communis is different from that generated when raised on Fo. vulgare , while no difference is observed with P. hospiton . The data support the hypothesis that diet-related factors may influence peripheral chemosensitivity in lepidopterous larvae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A key adaptation in insects for dealing with variable environmental conditions is the ability to diapause. The tiger swallowtail butterflies, Papilio glaucus and P. canadensis are ideal species to explore the genetic causes and population genetic consequences of diapause because divergence in this trait is believed to be a salient factor in maintaining a hybrid zone between these species. Yet little is known about the factors that influence diapause induction in this system. Here we explored how spatial (latitudinal), environmental (temperature) and genetic (hybridization) factors affect diapause induction in this system. Specifically, a series of growth chamber experiments using wild caught individuals from across the eastern United States were performed to: (1) evaluate how critical photoperiod varies with latitude, (2) isolate the stage in which induction occurs, (3) test whether changes in temperature affected rates of diapause induction, and (4) explore how the incidence of diapause is affected in hybrid offspring. We find that induction occurs in the larval stage, is not sensitive to a relatively broad range of temperatures, appears to have a complex genetic basis (i.e., is not simply a dominant trait following a Mendelian inheritance pattern) and that the critical photoperiod increases by 0.4 h with each increasing degree in latitude. This work deepens our understanding of how spatial, environmental and genetic variation influences a key seasonal adaptation (diapause induction) in a well‐developed ecological model system and will make possible future studies that explore how climatic variation affects the population dynamics and genetics of this system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study that shows parallel evolution of polymorphisms underlying Batesian mimicry supergene in Papilio polytes and Papilio memnon. It mentions that whole-genome sequence is performed in Papilio memnon which revealed a nearly identical doublesex-highly diversified region (dsx-HDR) containing three genes with dimorphic sequences strictly associated with the mimetic/nonmimetic phenotypes.

The majority of herbivorous insects are specialized in host use. Even among insects that use many hosts, local specialization is common with a single host plant often being used in any given locality. Here, we establish such a pattern for the European swallowtail butterfly, Papilio machaon. We sampled larvae on five different natural hosts at eight sites in Sweden, each locality showing local monophagy. We ask what is the underlying reason for this pattern, (1) local genetic adaptation with each population being genetically adapted to the local host, (2) Hopkins' host selection principle with adult females retaining a memory of the larval host and preferring to oviposit on that plant, or (3) the preference/performance hypothesis which posits that females should oviposit on the local plant(s) on which larval fitness is highest. Allozyme analysis supported a relatively low level of population structuring, and oviposition preference tests showed that females from all sites had similar preference rankings of the five host plants. Hence, there was no support for local genetic adaptation or Hopkins'host selection principle. Instead, the results are consistent with the preference/performance hypothesis with local monophagy probably being implemented by a preference ranking of plants in accordance with larval performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palatable animals sometimes mimic the color patterns of noxious animals to gain protection from predators. This phenomenon, known as Batesian mimicry, is seen in many butterflies of the genus Papilio, and in some species the mimicry is limited to females. Although female-limited Batesian mimicry has been hypothesized to be caused by females preferring to mate with non-mimetic males, this hypothesis is rarely tested. In this study, we tested whether female mate choice is driving female-limited Batesian mimicry in Papilio polytes. Males have white spots on the dorsal forewings, which are absent in mimetic female sand in the toxic model, Pachliopta aristolochiae. Hence, we conducted mate choice experiments to examine whether these white spots are important to females. We offered females a choice of males with intact dorsal forewing white spots and males with artificially blackened dorsal forewings, resembling the model. Females did not show a preference for males with the white spots, suggesting that they are not being maintained by female mate choice. Future studies should investigate the presence of female mate choice on other parts of males’ wings to further understand the role of female mate choice, as well as explore other factors driving female-limited mimicry in these butterflies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature on community-based environmental management is very extensive and the discussion of the pros and cons is continuing. Presented here is an example of a successful interaction between university-based entomologists and a local rural community, detailing the change in the attitude of the town of Millbank, Jamaica, from a Giant Swallowtail Butterfly collecting site to a model for community protection of a species and its environment. A review of some of the research work on community-based conservation efforts is included. These linkages take a considerable time to establish and the efforts spent by scientific personnel, governmental representatives and eco-tourists are itemized to emphasize how specific conservation activities have inspired confidence in the local community, thus engendering trust and mutual respect between the two groups. Reviews of the developed legislative support from both international and state entities also must be in place, and these are included in chronological detail as much as possible. Finally, a review of the long-term funding of educational and other local programs providing a level of stability to the conservation effort, until the local community can take over the protection of the species and/or habitat, is provided. Of utmost importance is a comprehensive educational campaign to not only sensitize the community, but the larger society, so that there can be buy-in from all stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Papilio hospiton Géné is an oligophagous species, endemic of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, using various Apiaceae and Rutaceae as host plants, such as Ferula communis , Ferula arrigonii , Peucedanum paniculatum , Ruta lamarmorae and Pastinaca latifolia . We previously found that the lateral maxillary styloconic sensillum in the larva has two deterrent neurons, one phagostimulant and one salt specific, while the medial sensillum has two phagostimulant neurons, one deterrent and one salt specific. In this work we studied the sensitivity of gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) to saps of F. communis , F. arrigonii , P. paniculatum , P. latifolia and R. lamarmorae and evaluated the relationship between taste sensitivity to different host-plants and larval growth rate on each of them. The spike activity was recorded from medial and lateral taste sensilla stimulated with plant saps, and GRN response patterns were cross compared in the light of a different feeding acceptance. The phagodeterrent GRNs show a higher activity in response to F. arrigonii and R. lamarmorae than to F. communis, P. paniculatum and P. latifolia . Behavioral trials showed that the time to pupation is significantly longer when larvae are reared on F. arrigonii and R. lamarmorae than on the other host-plants. These results suggest that the different activity of the phagodeterrent GRNs may inhibit food acceptance and extend the duration of the larval stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several species of swallowtail butterflies (genus Papilio) are Batesian mimics that express multiple mimetic female forms, while the males are monomorphic and nonmimetic. The evolution of such sex-limited mimicry may involve sexual dimorphism arising first and mimicry subsequently. Such a stepwise scenario through a nonmimetic, sexually dimorphic stage has been proposed for two closely related sexually dimorphic species: Papilio phorcas, a nonmimetic species with two female forms, and Papilio dardanus, a female-limited polymorphic mimetic species. Their close relationship indicates that female-limited polymorphism could be a shared derived character of the two species. Here, we present a phylogenomic analysis of the dardanus group using 3964 nuclear loci and whole mitochondrial genomes, showing that they are not sister species and thus that the sexually dimorphic state has arisen independently in the two species. Nonhomology of the female polymorphism in both species is supported by population genetic analysis of engrailed, the presumed mimicry switch locus in P. dardanus. McDonald-Kreitman tests performed on SNPs in engrailed showed the signature of balancing selection in a polymorphic population of P. dardanus, but not in monomorphic populations , nor in the nonmimetic P. phorcas. Hence, the wing polymorphism does not balance polymorphisms in engrailed in P. phorcas. Equally, unlike in P. dardanus, none of the SNPs in P. phorcas engrailed were associated with either female morph. We conclude that sexual dimorphism due to female polymorphism evolved independently in both species from monomorphic, nonmimetic states. While sexual selection may drive male-female dimorphism in nonmimetic species, in mimetic Papilios, natural selection for protection from predators in females is an alternative route to sexual dimorphism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers the author's insights on his expedition to take photographs and to record Lepidoptera, an order of insects that includes moths and butterflies, in the West Papua. Topics discussed include the endemicness of the family Anthelidae in the Snow Mountains, the commonality of the swallowtail Papilio ulysses in the canopies of Papua, and the effectiveness of using banana bait to attract diverse insects.

A review of the available evidence related to the descriptions of Papilio pegala F. and Papilio alope F. (now generally recognized as Cercyonis p. pegala and C. pegala alope, respectively) reveals that the suggested type localities of these nominal taxa are untenable for the reasons originally given. The vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina, is retained for P. pegala, but for different reasons than those first proposed. Based on an eighteenth century illustration in 'Jones' Icones,' the Georgia type locality for P. alope is revised to the vicinity of New York, New York, and a lectotype is designated. Additional nominal taxa are discussed, including Satyrus alope var. maritima W. H. Edwards, Satyrus nephele var. olympus W. H. Edwards, Cercyonis pegala race borealis F. Chermock, Cercyonis alope Carolina F. Chermock & R. Chermock, Cercyonis alope ochracea F. Chermock & R. Chermock, Cercyonis pegala abbottii F. Brown, and Cercyonis pegala agawamensis Arey & Grkovich. The holotypes of C. p. borealis, C. a. Carolina, and C. a. ochracea are figured for the first time. Perceived morphological trends within C. pegala in eastern North America are mapped, revealing a broad clinal blend zone in the southeast and an extensive contact zone northward, which partly exhibits characteristics of a mosaic hybrid zone. Evidence suggests that temperature may influence phenotypic expression in C. pegala. Based strictly on wing pattern, an arrangement is proposed that recognizes four subspecies of C. pegala in eastern North America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Papilio euchenor euchenor Guérin-Méneville, 1830 is recorded for the first time from Australia at Dauan Island, Torres Strait, Queensland. Form ambracia Wallace, 1865 of Papilio ambrax ambrax Boisduval, 1832, with a large median white patch on the forewing, is also recorded for the first time from Dauan Island. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]