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Introduction: Pansies (Viola×wittrockiana) are a rich source of natural antioxidants with beneficial effects on human health. Objetives: The aim of our study was to investigate solvents’ influence (water, methanol, water:acetone (6:4, v/v)) on the extraction of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of pansies extracts. Methods: The bioactive compounds analyzed were the following: flavonoids, hydrolysable tannins and monomeric anthocyanins, as well as total phenols by the total reducing capacity assay (TRC). The antioxidant activity was evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and reducing power assays. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed to differentiate pansies extracts. Results: The solvents that yielded extracts with the highest contents of hydrolysable tannins and TRC were methanol and water:acetone (6:4, v/v). To extract the highest contents of monomeric anthocyanins, methanol should be used (5.93 mg Cy 3-glu/g flower, d.w), while for flavonoids, water:acetone (6:4, v/v) was the preferred yielding an extract with 115 mg QE/g flower d.w. Water turned out to be the least effective solvent, giving extracts with the lowest antioxidant activity. In addition, methanol or water:acetone extracts were clearly distinguished from aqueous ones through a PCA analysis. Conclusions: Our results show that the bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of pansies’ extracts are affected by the solvent used.

The aim of the present study was to assess the metal concentrations in five species of the genus Viola L. (section Melanium) from 12 ultramafic outcrops and two non-ultramafic (prolluvium and dolomite) soils from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The concentrations of P2O5, K2O, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Co, Cd and Pb in soils and plant samples, as well as their shoot-to-root ratio, biological concentration and accumulation factors were determined. Five investigated Viola species growing on 14 different localities displayed considerable differences in concentration of potentially toxic elements in their roots and its accumulation in their shoots. Viola kopaonikensis and V. beckiana from ultramafic soils could be classified as strong Ni accumulators, since moderately high level of Ni was measured in their shoots (up to 266 mg kg−1 and 337 mg kg−1, respectively), while in V. tricolor high amount of the same element was accumulated in the roots (up to 395 mg kg−1). Population of V. beckiana from dolomitic site in Bosnia and Herzegovina accumulated high concentrations of Pb in the shoots (67.1 mg kg−1), as well as of Cd in both roots and shoots (81.1 mg kg−1 and 60.5 mg kg−1). The results also suggest that V. kopaonikensis populations from the ultramafic soils of Serbia emerge as Cr accumulators, which is quite rare trait within the genus Viola. It seems that species from Melanium section apply quite different strategies against toxic elements. Future studies should strive to explain what adaptive mechanisms are hidden behind it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edible flowers consumption and use are an increasing food trend worldwide, although information concerning their nutritional composition and nutraceutical value is still scarce. Thus, the aim of this study was to contribute to the popularization of pansies (Viola × wittrockiana), through the analysis of the nutritional and nutraceutical features of pansies with different colors (white, yellow, and red) and flowering stages. Both flower type and flowering stage influenced the flower composition. When completely open, white and yellow pansies had the highest contents of protein (>2.00 g/100 g fresh weight), while red pansies had the highest content of carbohydrates (8.0 g/100 g fresh weight). Regarding the fatty acid profiles, linoleic acid was always predominant (ranging between 18.7 and 51.0 g/100 g fatty acids), followed by the palmitic and linolenic acids. During flowering, there was an increase in protein, fat, and linolenic acid contents in white and yellow pansies, whereas in red pansies the values did not change. Red pansies were characterized by the highest contents of total carotenoids (873 to 1300 µg β‐carotene/g dry weight) and monomeric anthocyanins (303 to 402 µg Cy‐3 glu/g dry weight); however, white and yellow pansies showed an increase in the values of total reducing capacity (total phenols), hydrolysable tannins, flavonoids, monomeric anthocyanins, and antioxidant activity from the bud to completely open flower stage. Our results underline the nutritional differences between pansies with different colors at distinct stages of development and their potential health benefits, suggesting that they can be used as ingredient to improve the nutritional properties of foods. Practical application: The market of edible flowers is increasing, although little information in nutritional view is available. So, the present study was conducted to contribute to the popularization of edible flowers as a new and prospective source for the food industry, as well as a promising product for human nutrition. The results of the present study underline the nutritional differences between pansies with different colors at distinct stages of development and their potential health benefits, suggesting that they can be used as ingredient to improve the nutritional properties of foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An artificial crossing was made between four Viola xwittrockiana (2n = 48) lines and one Viola cornuta inbred (2n = 26) line as well as among V. Xwittrockiana lines to investigate the cytologic characteristics, fertility, and heteroses of hybrids. The sizes of flowers and stomata and the leaf areas of the V. Xwittrockiana plants were larger than those of the V. cornuta plants. The karyologic stability of V. cornuta was greater than that of V. Xwittrockiana, and ≈20% of individuals in the latter deviated from the given 2n = 48. Capsule setting after interspecies hand pollination ranged from 28% to 94%, and F1 seed germination ranged from 16% to 88%, revealing no obvious pre- or postzygotic selection mechanisms. The chromosome numbers in V. Xwittrockiana x V. cornuta F1 seedlings varied (2n = 34-38), with about half the cells exhibiting the intermediate (2n = 36) value. These interspecific hybrids exhibited positive heterosis in flower size (range, 11% to 66%) and negative heterosis in plant height (range, -12% to -57%). Both of these traits are desirable in pansy breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The phenological stages, dry matter allocation and relative growth rate (RGR) of natural populations of European field pansy (Viola arvensis) were studied under field conditions for 3 years. The species exhibited an annual life cycle of 78–100 calendar days, depending on the growing season. The life cycle was initiated in early spring and ended by early summer, with an average accumulation of 1100 growing degree days. The initiation of emergence occurred in early spring at a range of maximum air temperatures between 15 and 20°C, coupled with a range of minimum air temperatures between 5 and 10°C. With increasing temperatures in mid‐spring, there was a rapid transition to the reproductive stage. Time to flowering was shortened considerably in the warm growing season. After flowering, the species appeared to allocate a relatively large proportion of biomass to the reproductive parts than dry matter allocation to the vegetative parts during juvenile stages. The maximum value of RGR was observed in the vegetative stage, whereas RGR values decreased sharply with plant age. Overall, the species showed a short life cycle and a reproductive strategy that directs resources to reproductive rather than vegetative output, thus increasing the likelihood of persistence in systematically disturbed environments that are characterized by limited growth time as a result of major events in the field, such as mechanical cultivation or herbicide application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of alginate edible coating on the quality of pansies (visual appearance, weight loss, water activity, color, and dimensions change) were studied during refrigerated storage (4 ℃). The role of pansies’ color and size, as well as packaging, was also studied. Alginate treatments resulted in a beneficial effect on the visual appearance of pansies under refrigerated storage when compared to the uncoated, delaying their degradation from 3–4 days up to 14 days, depending on the pansies’ color, probably derived from their different petal thicknesses (83 to 183 µm for yellow and red pansies). The unpackaged coated pansies had different behaviors during storage, associated with their dimensions (the larger coated pansies maintained good visual appearance during longer storage times than the smaller ones). However, the packaged pansies treated with edible coating showed to have lower weight loss and shrinkage than the unpackaged, irrespective of the color and size, with physical stability up to 14 days. In summary, the cumulative use of alginate coating with packaging under refrigerated storage may contribute to extend pansies’ shelf life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genusViola, particularlyMelaniumsection, rich in metallophytes, is an excellent taxon for study of microevolutionary and adaptation processes. Pollen, ovule, and microstructural floral characters were investigated by LM, SEM, and CLSM in seven endemic Albanian violets, five serpentinophytes (Viola albanica,V. dukadjinica,V. albanica×V. dukadjinica,V. raunsiensis,andV. macedonica), two from chalk soil (V. aetolicaandV. schariensis), and in their closest relatives (V. luteassp. sudetica,V. tricolorssp.tricolor,andV. arvensis) for their taxonomic usefulness and adaptive value. Three among analyzed characters were common in all Albanian violets however not unique. Serpentinophytes,V. aetolicaandV. schariensispossessed hairs deep inside the spur, developed pollen heteromorphism, both increase the chance of pollination in unpredictable conditions and had strongly developed tannin rich layer in the outer integument of the young ovules with a protective role. They also all exhibited high pollen viability (86.9 ± 10.2%), high frequency of normally developed, enlarged (fertilized) ovules in ovary (65.0 ± 24.0%), but also high frequency of degenerations in developing ovules (40.4 ± 9.8%). Several flower characters may be adaptive in the unfavorable, high altitude environment, including serpentine soils. High pollen viability and normally developed fertilized ovules are sufficient for Albanian species maintenance. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of high hydrostatic pressure ( HHP) on the appearance, bioactivity and microbial content of four edible flowers along storage. Several treatments at 75-450 MPa and holding times (1, 5 and 10 min) were applied. Borage and camellia were unacceptable after all treatments, while centaurea showed good appearance at 100/5 MPa min−1; however, the shelf life did not increase. Pansies treated at 75/5 and 75/10 MPa min−1 also retained the appearance of fresh flowers. Furthermore, pansies submitted at 75/5 MPa min−1 maintained good appearance over 20 days of storage at 4 °C, while the untreated remained satisfactory only until 6 days. Even though no significant differences on microbial load were observed between untreated and HHP-treated pansies in day 0, HHP induced the production of bioactive compounds, increasing the shelf life of pansies. So, the HHP treatment is a promising technology for Viola × wittrockiana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the early modern Western essay form alongside various genres of short non-fiction prose that flourished concurrently in China: xiaopin, biji, and riji. Although the works examined here were written in isolation from one another, this essay reveals these genres' common preoccupation with questions of truth, authenticity, and falsification, as well as their shared tendency to present ideas in a disorderly manner. The article argues that in both China and Europe, authors relied on these potpourri-like prose genres to respond to locally specific conditions of early modernity. Motivating this study is the question of what constitutes a viable context of interpretation and whether, in defining literary genres, scholars may responsibly invoke factors that go beyond those that historical authors themselves and their contemporaries would have recognized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The components used in the formulation of substrates can be organic or inorganic. Among the latter, expanded perlite is most frequently used but it presents disadvantages such as it not being a renewable resource, its lack of biodegradability and its loss of granulometric stability, as well as its high cost. Consequently, alternatives are sought for replacement. In June 2011, the Puyehue volcano expelled large amounts of ash that proved to be viable as substrate component. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the volcanic ash (VC) as an alternative to expanded perlite (EP). Both materials were analyzed for their chemical and physical characteristics and substrates were formulated with 20% or 50% of these materials with Sphagnum peat, and seedlings of pansy (Viola tricolor L.) and impatiens (Impatiens walleriana Hook.f.) were grown on each substrate. For each material and substrate pH, electrical conductivity (EC), bulk density (dap.) air porosity (PA), water holding capacity (CRA) and total porosity (EPT) was analyzed. Aerial and root dry mass was measured on each species. Both materials (PE and VC) were characterized by presentinga low EC (0.01 and 0.02 dS m-1) and a high percentage of PA (63% and 55%); volcanic ash showed more density than perlite. The substrates formulated with the same ratio of PE or VC did not differ in most of the evaluated properties. Seedlings grown onsubstrates with 20% PE or CV presented more dry matter than those grown on substrates with 50% PE or CV. The use of volcanic ash showed to be a good alternative to the use of expanded perlite in formulated substrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hybrid zones formed from genetically and ecologically differentiated species provide an opportunity to examine how genetics and ecology interact to determine species boundaries. In this study, we examined a hybrid zone generated by invasion of shade-loving Viola eizanensis into habitat occupied by its close relative, V. chaerophylloides var. sieboldiana, which prefers more open areas. We used 339 AFLP loci to estimate genomic composition and generation of hybrids, and confirmed maternal inheritance through sequencing of the cpDNA atpI- atpH intergenic spacer region. Phenotypic variation was assessed using leaf thickness (leaf mass/area) and leaf dissection (leaf perimeter/area), which were diversified between species. Genetic analyses showed that the AFLP of hybrid individuals in having maternal origin from V. chaerophylloides var. sieboldiana were replaced by V. eizanensis in response to habitat. Significant correlations were observed between hybrid indices and the two leaf traits. These results suggest that genes of V. eizanensis that are adaptive to shaded habitats are fixed in the hybrids, and that the degree of leaf thickness and dissection is important in adaptation of the hybrids to their light environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollen heteromorphism is frequent in the section Melanium of the genus Viola, in which over 80% of the species produces pollen morphs with 3 to 6 apertures. Some authors have pointed out that many factors can affect the proportion of the different pollen types in perennial species, and that this proportion can change among populations. This work focuses on the study of the polymorphic pollen assemblage of three annual pansies: Viola arvensis, V. kitaibeliana, and V. hymettia, and on the assessment of its variability both within a population and within the same plant. In all the species, with both large and small flowers, 3-, 4- and 5-aperturate pollen grains were observed, with a large prevalence of 4-aperturate types. No pollen grains with 6 apertures were found. No significant variability of the pollen assemblage among flowers of the same plant was observed. In addition, in these three Viola species the frequencies of the various pollen morphs are also fairly constant among plants of the same population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The shoot architecture- related traits of V. cornuta were mainly controlled by genetic factors. • An additive major gene controlled the plant height of V. cornuta. • The internode length, shoot number, and pedicel length of V. cornuta were regulated by two additive major genes, respectively. • The plant width and shoot angle of V. cornuta were governed by two equally additive major genes, respectively. The shoot architecture of Viola cornuta affects its uniformity, aesthetics, and lodging resistance. Understanding the genetic variance in the traits of the shoot architecture has practical significance for V. cornuta breeding. However, not much is currently known about these traits. In this study, we analyzed the genetic basis of seven traits (plant height-PH, plant width-PW, plant width/plant height-PW/PH, internode length-IL, shoot number-SN, shoot angle-SA, and pedicel length-PL) in V cornuta using major gene plus polygene mixed inheritance analysis based on four generations (P 1 , P 2 , F 1 , and F 2). These seven traits had varied coefficients of variation (CVs), among which that of the IL was the highest. Significant positive correlations (correlation coefficient > 0.5) were observed for two groups: 1) PH and PW/PH and 2) IL and PH and PW. Genetic analysis revealed that V. cornuta PH adhered to the A-1 model via one additive major gene. The optimal model for PW, PW/PH, and SA was the B-4 model, namely two equally additive major genes model. IL, SN, and PL could be described by the B-2 genetic model via two additive major genes. Additionally, the heritability of these major genes was close to (and sometimes exceeded) 50%, indicating that the shoot architecture traits of V. cornuta were mainly controlled by genetic factors. Our findings may provide new theoretical data for quantitative trait locus mapping and breeding of desirable shoot architectures in V. cornuta. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Violets of the section Melanium from Albanian serpentine and chalk soils were examined for their taxonomic affiliations, their ability to accumulate heavy metals and their colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). The sequence analysis of the ITS1-5.8S rDNA-ITS2 region showed that all the sampled six Albanian violets grouped between Viola lutea and Viola arvensis , but not with Viola tricolor. The fine resolution of the ITS sequences was not sufficient for a further delimitation of the Albanian violets within the V. lutea – V. arvensis clade. Therefore, the Albanian violets were classified by a set of morphological characters. Viola albanica , Viola dukadjinica and Viola raunsiensis from serpentine soils as well as Viola aetolica from a chalk meadow were unambiguously identified, whereas the samples of Viola macedonica showed high morphological variability. All the violets, in both roots and shoots contained less than or similar levels of heavy metals as their harboring soils, indicating that they were heavy metal excluders. All the violets were strongly colonized by AMF with the remarkable exception of V. albanica . This violet lived as a scree creeper in shallow serpentine soil where the concentration of heavy metals was high but those of P, K and N were scarce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physiological antitranspirants can reduce financial risks to growers by temporarily preventing drought stress, improving product quality, and extending the shelf life of ornamental bedding plants. Exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) is an effective antitranspirant that induces stomatal closure in a rate-dependent manner, reducing transpirational water loss in many species. However, it may also cause chlorosis, which reduces product quality. Synthetic ABA analogs have similar effects on stomatal conductance (gs) but are not known to induce chlorosis. We studied the effects of ABA and its analog 8' acetylene ABA methyl-ester (PBI 429) on gs and net photosynthesis (Pn) in pansies (Viola Xwittrockiana), compared the efficacy and longevity of each compound, and quantified the resulting chlorosis. Plants were treated with spray solutions of ABA (0 to 2000 mg⋅L-1) and PBI 429 (0 to 200 mg⋅L-1) and irrigated daily. Gas exchange and leaf chlorophyll measurements were made twice weekly for 2 weeks. Additional measurements were taken once or twice weekly through 47 days. Abscisic acid reduced leaf chlorophyll content and Pn in a rate-dependent manner for 14 days after application but reduced gs for only 11 days, whereas PBI 429 reduced Pn and gs similarly for 7 days and did not reduce leaf chlorophyll content. Reductions in gs and Pn were greatest on the first day after treatment for both compounds. Our results demonstrate that ABA is more effective than PBI 429 at 100 and 200 mg⋅L-1, but also causes chlorosis, whereas PBI 429 is an effective antitranspirant without this phytotoxic effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of these studies was to determine the effect of environmental pollution on pollen development. Pollen heteromorphism (the presence of pollen morphs differing in aperture number in one flower of a plant), pollen viability (stainability) and pollen grain size in European metallophytes from sect. Melanium Ging. (Viola L., Violaceae) were analyzed by SEM and histochemical staining. Plants' tolerance to heavy metals is positively correlated with their pollen viability, which should be termed stainability as it depends on the staining method applied and is not correlated with pollen germination. Abortive pollen can be produced as an effect of heavy metals but also may result from hybridization, a very common phenomenon in pansies. Pollen stainability in hybrids can be high (even exceeding 70%) or low (barely above 20%), and stainable pollen grains can differ greatly in size (from very small to giant), indicating a cytological imbalance resulting from disturbed meiosis. The number of pollen apertures is an adaptive character in facultative metallophytes. Plants from a metallicolous population produced a wider range of aperture number (3, 4, 5) than plants from a non-metallicolous population, which developed only 4- and 5-aperturate pollen. Three-aperturate longer-lived pollen are favored in the harsh conditions of a metalpolluted environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dwarf perennial seaside or sandhill pansy, Viola tricolor L . subsp. curtisii ( Forst.) Syme is illustrated and described. The history of its discovery by William Curtis, founder of this magazine, is given, and its relationships and nomenclature are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]