Search

Background Understanding the variation in distribution and abundance of non-timber forest products (NTFP) species is a crucial step in achieving their conservation and sustainable use. At the northern periphery of the Boumba-Bek National Park in Southeast Cameroon, little is known about which habitat type contain the highest abundance of NTFP species. In this study, we assessed habitat diversity and variation in the abundance of eight priority NTFP species comprising: Afrostyrax lepidophyllus, Baillonella toxisperma, Irvingia gabonensis, Panda oleosa, Pentaclethra macrophylla, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Scorodophloeus zenkeri and Tetrapleura tetraptera. The inventory was done along 16 linear transects of 5000 m × 20 m, and all the individuals, from juveniles (DBH 5 cm) of the eight NTFPs were recorded. Habitat types were characterized along transects following basic forest classification system used in ecology and then measured. Results In total, 13 different habitat types were identified with young secondary forests and periodically flooded forests representing 32.70% and 26.31% respectively. The least represented habitat was young fallows with Chromolaena odorata (0.08%). Seven NTFPs (A. lepidophyllus, B. toxisperma, I. gabonensis, P. oleosa, P. macrophylla, R. heudelotii and T. tetraptera) were predominantly represented in young secondary forests whereas S. zenkeri was more abundant in young Marantaceae secondary forests. The different types of young secondary forests identified seem to be favourable for the growth of the eight NTFPs. Conclusions This study demonstrated that habitat fragmentation driven by human activities such as industrial logging and shifting cultivation destroy the forest ecosystems and has a strong influence on the sustainability of the major NTFPs in the locality. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12898-019-0219-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Objectives According to the technical intelligence hypothesis, humans are superior to all other animal species in understanding and using tools. However, the vast majority of comparative studies between humans and chimpanzees, both proficient tool users, have not controlled for the effects of age, prior knowledge, past experience, rearing conditions, or differences in experimental procedures. We tested whether humans are superior to chimpanzees in selecting better tools, using them more dexteriously, achieving higher performance and gaining access to more resource as predicted under the technical intelligence hypothesis. Materials and methods Aka and Mbendjele hunter-gatherers in the rainforest of Central African Republic and the Republic of Congo, respectively, and Tai chimpanzees in the rainforest of Cote d'Ivoire were observed cracking hard Panda oleosa nuts with different tools, as well as the soft Coula edulis and Elaeis guinensis nuts. The nut-cracking techniques, hammer material selection and two efficiency measures were compared. Results As predicted, the Aka and the Mbendjele were able to exploit more species of hard nuts in the forest than chimpanzees. However, the chimpanzees were sometimes more efficient than the humans. Social roles differed between the two species, with the Aka and especially the Mbendjele exhibiting cooperation between nut-crackers whereas the chimpanzees were mainly individualistic. Discussion Observations of nut-cracking by humans and chimpanzees only partially supported the technical intelligence hypothesis as higher degrees of flexibility in tool selection seen in chimpanzees compensated for use of less efficient tool material than in humans. Nut cracking was a stronger social undertaking in humans than in chimpanzees.

Panda oleosa Pierre (POP), a tropical plant tree, has been used in traditional medicine in Kisangani city and around to treat various diseases including diabetes and HIV/AIDs. This study aims to evaluate the chemical composition of POP extracts while setting up chromatographic fingerprints for their quality control, and the anti-hyperglycemic potential of trunk bark aqueous extracts of POP. Common chemical reactions were used for identification of main secondary metabolic groups. Thin layer chromatography was used to set up several chromatographic fingerprints of water and alcoholic extracts while evaluating chemical composition. Oral glucose tolerance test served to induce hyperglycemia in a rabbit model. The extracts were given as 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, and 100 mg/kg body weight, 30 minutes before loading animals with glucose 4 g/kg. Blood samples were collected at various times: just before extracts (T-30), before (T0) and after glucose load (T30, T60, T120, and T180). Blood glucose levels were measured with One Touch Glucometer. The identification tests revealed the presence of saponins (3.58%), tannins (5%); alkaloids, quinones, flavonoids, and terpenes sterols could not be formerly detected by the reagents used. Interesting chromatographic spots were observed whose behaviors are of catechic tannin proanthocyanes. The extract significantly reduced glucose levels in dose dependent manner as compared to control and glibenclamide reference groups. The average of mean percentage of reduction in glucose level at T120 with the extract 100 mg/kg was close to that of glibenclamide 0.25 mg/kg (49% and 40.2%). These findings back the traditional use of the plant to treat diabetic patients and constitute a foundation for an extensive study to find a new antidiabetic phythomedicine.

Widely consumed forest fruits in Gabon were analysed for nutrient and bioactive compositions and their potential contributions to meeting the nutrient requirements of consumers. Edible pulps of Panda oleosa Pierre, Gambeya lacourtiana (De Wild.) Aubr&eacute, v. &amp, Pellegr. and Poga oleosa Pierre contained substantial amounts of bioactive compounds, flavonoids (13.5&ndash, 22.8 mg/100 g), proanthocyanins (2.4&ndash, 7.6 mg/100 g), polyphenols (49.6&ndash, 77.3 mg/100 g) and vitamin C (6.7&ndash, 97.7 mg/100 g). The highest content of &beta, carotene (76.6 &micro, g/100 g) was registered in fruits of Pseudospondias longifolia Engl. The fruits of P. oleosa had the highest essential minerals Fe, Zn and Se. If a child aged 1 to 3 years consumed about 200 g or if a non-lactating and non-pregnant woman consumed 300 g of Panda oleosa, Afrostyrax lepidophyllus Mildbr., G. lacourtiana, P. longifolia and Poga oleosa, they could obtain substantial DRI ranging between 20&ndash, 100% for energy, vitamins C and E, iron, magnesium, iron and zinc. Forest fruits can considerably contribute towards the human nutrient requirements. Based on the results of this study, forest foods should be considered in formulating policies governing food and nutrition security in Gabon.

INTRODUCTION We report the results of the 2006 KUPRI (Kyoto University Primate Research Institute) surveys in Diecke forest, Guinea, Western Africa. Research in the Diecke forest by KUPRI started in 1999 with a preliminary survey. This continued in 2000, with the survey of Nonah and Yossono areas. The main objective was to find a good research site that would allow for comparative studies between different communities of wild chimpanzees. It has been acknowledged, since the first field season, that Diecke chimpanzees crack open nuts (Panda oleosa and Coula edulis) using stone and root anvils and stone hammers. Nut-cracking behaviour had not been observed directly until today and there are very few reports on chimpanzee’s direct observation . The Diecke forest is part of the Guinean Forests and integrates the region comprised by lowland forests, being one important world spot for the biodiversity. These forests survived after the retraction and division of Pleistocene forests, partly due to the ice age that dried the climate cyclically. This forest, Foret Classee de Diecke, is a protected area of 600 km, located in the South-eastern part of Guinea, 50 km west from Bossou, bordering Liberia on the south. The reserve is controlled by the Centre Forestier de N`zerekore, and Diecke biodiversity is managed by a German project located at the Direction Generale de Centres Forestiers, also in N`zerekore. This project, entitled PROGERFOR, focuses on conservation/ reforestation; damage minimization; regional development, and organized the forest in thirty parcels with three levels of protection. Diecke is characterized by a large number of small hills, averaging 350 m of altitude (the highest point being Mont Jna, with 800 m). Two main rivers cross the forest running south: Nye on the west side, and Gbin, divided in Gbin and Gbin-be, on the east side. Secondary waterlines are abundant in the forest creating swamps. In this part of the country, the dry season is very short, from December or January to March or April. Geologically, Diecke is part of the West African craton with Precambrian rocks, essentially igneous and

The Forest of Diecke, about 50 km west of Bossou, is the second largest protected reserve in the region of Guinee Forestiere. This forest is currently an important refuge for endemic species of fauna and flora. It is one of 12 major sites for biodiversity conservation in West Africa. In 1999, Kyoto University Primate Research Institute (KUPRI) initiated chimpanzee research is this area to gather comparative data to the long-term site of Bossou, as Diecke chimpanzees use stone and wooden tools to crack nuts of Panda oleosa and Coula edulis. Between 2006 and 2008, the first surveys with an etho-archaeological approach focused on regional variations in stone-tool use within different groups of wild chimpanzees to study the emergence of technology. These pilot surveys, carried out with the cooperation of local teams, expanded our understanding of chimpanzee behavior across a larger expanse of the reserve. We set up temporary camps in the core of the forest and established the first research encampment. In 2009, we broadened the research scope, mapping raw material sources, and measuring their availability along 4-km-long transect lines and quadrats. An archaeological excavation revealed strata harboring stone artifacts. In addition, for the first time the chimpanzees of Diecke were photographed and video-recorded. The main results are reported here concerning the state of the art of chimpanzee research mainly during the first research period: recording and monitoring of new nut-cracking sites; indirect records of the presence of the chimpanzees; diversity between Bossou and Diecke nut-cracking technologies; and descriptions of the ecology and the geomorphology of the area, and the conservation management of the forest of Diecke, aimed at understanding the impact of human harvest of resources.

1 Competition for light is a central issue in ecological questions concerning forest tree differentiation and diversity. Here, using 213 106 individual stem records derived from a national survey in Ghana, West Africa, we examine the relationship between relative crown exposure, ontogeny and phylogeny for 109 canopy species. 2 We use a generalized linear model (GLM) framework to allow interspecific comparisons of crown exposure that control for stem-size. For each species, a multinomial response model is used to describe the probabilities of the relative canopy illumination classes as a function of stem diameter. 3 In general, and for all larger stems, canopy-exposure increases with diameter. Five species have size-related exposure patterns that reveal local minima above 5 cm d.b.h., but only one, Panda oleosa, shows a local maximum at a low diameter. 4 The pattern of species exposures at 10 cm diameter is consistent with two overlapping groups, of which the smaller (21 species, including most pioneers) is generally better exposed. 5 Relative illumination rankings amongst species are significantly maintained over a wide range of stem sizes. Species that are well exposed at small diameters are therefore also more likely to be well exposed at larger diameters, although two species in the most exposed 25% of species at 10 cm d.b.h. drop to the lowest illumination quartile at 40 cm d.b.h., and three demonstrate the opposite (low-to-high) pattern. 6 Species capable of achieving the largest diameters are generally recorded less frequently in shade than are smaller species, even when compared as saplings, suggesting that species achieving large mature sizes are generally shade intolerant when small. Controlling for phylogeny reveals that this relationship holds across independent lineages. 7 We also find evidence that the range of strategies encountered is influenced by disturbance regimes. 8 We interpret our results as indicating a continuum of strategies that reflect an evolutionary trade-off between a species' mature size and its general shade-tolerance, in combination with differentiation based on disturbance based opportunities. Species that appear similar can therefore remain ecologically distinct over their lifetimes. © 2006 British Ecological Society.

Indirect evidence was collected in Ivory Coast for the use of sticks and stones by chimpanzees to open the nuts of Coula edulis and Panda oleosa. 26 nut-smashing places at 15 different sites are described.

Kernels ofPentaclethra macrophylla, Allanblackia floribunda, Panda oleosa, Treculoa africana, Desplatzia dewevrei, Garcinia kola andMilletia laurentii were found to contain respectively 45.9, 67.6, 50.5, 11.8, 20.4, 2.1 and 22.9% oil (% dry matter). Gas liquid chromatography showed the major fatty acids of the kernel oils were as follows:P. macrophylla, 18:1 (31.3%) and 18:2 (40.4%);A. floribunda, 18:0 (55.9%) and 18:1 (43.3%);P. oleosa, 16:0 (32.0%), 18:1 (30.2%) and 18:2 (29.2%);T. africana, 16:0 (25.7%), 18:1 (32.7%) and 18:2 (25.8%);D. dewevrei, 16:0 (37.8%), 18:1 (18.1%) and 18:2 (35.0%);G. kola, 16:0 (19.0%), 18:1 (38.4%) and 18:2 (23.7%), andM. laurentii, 18:1 (44.9%) and 18:2 (17.6%).

Seeds were collected from elephant dung in Bia National Park, Western Region, Ghana during a 3-mo period prior to the major wet season, and were brought to the laboratory for counting, identification, and germination trials. We report here the quantities of seeds, characteristics of fruits and seeds of the species encountered, and the results of germination trials comparing fresh seeds (from ripe fruits) and ingested seeds (from dung). Altogether 449 seeds representing 11 species were enumerated, the most important of these being Panda oleosa, Balanites wilsoniana, Strychnos aculeata, and Parinari excelsa. For three of the species tested, the germination percentage was significantly higher for ingested seeds than for fresh seeds; for two species, there was no difference. ELEPHANTS FEED UPON FRUITS AND DISPERSE SEEDS (Ridley 1930, Aubreville 1958, Buss 1961, Depierre 1967, Guillaumet 1967, Wing & Buss 1970, Laws et al. 1975, Alexandre 1978, Brahmachary 1980, Short 1981, Martin 1982, Gautier-Hion et al. 1985). We report here our observations on species composition and quantities of seeds in elephant dung from one locality in Ghana and the results of germination trials with the most abundant seed species. Although elephant diets in the area have been studied (Short 1981, Martin 1982), this paper offers the first quantitative information on germination of seeds dispersed by elephants in Ghana.

Panda oleosa Pierre, a West African tree known for its edible, oil-bearing seeds, is at present the sole representative of the genus Panda Pierre, of the family Pandaceae, and of the order Pandales. When Pierre first described this plant, however, he proposed that Microdesmis Hook.f., then (and still) in the Euphorbiaceae, should be included together with Panda in the same family. Shortly after, he suggested that Galearia Zoll. & Mor., also in Euphorbiaceae, was even closer to Panda and should therefore also be included in the new family. Unfortunately, Pierre's main reason for suggesting an affinity between these three genera was based on faulty observation. Following the subsequent correction of Pierre's error, botanists failed to see the true resemblances which actually link the genera. Engler went so far as to create a distinct order for the solitary species of Panda-the Pandales. New knowledge concerning Galearia now provides confirmation that Pierre's conclusion was correct, even though his reasons were wrong.