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Objectives: The study aimed to determine if an ultrasonic Doppler-guided technique (UDGT) leads to improved placement efficacy (time, success) of feline dorsal pedal arterial catheters vs the traditional palpation-guided technique (TPT)., Methods: A total of 26 adult, client-owned cats requiring sedation or general anesthesia for any reason, aged >12 months and weighing >3.0 kg, and with Doppler blood pressure measurements of at least 80 mmHg were enrolled. Each hindlimb was randomly assigned for dorsal pedal arterial catheterization using either the UDGT or TPT. With the UDGT, the location of the artery was identified by an audible sound using the Doppler. Successful catheter placement was confirmed by visualization of an arterial pressure waveform using a transducer and monitor system attached to the catheter. The Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test were used to compare the two techniques., Results: The overall proportion of successful arterial catheterization was 17% (9/52): 19% (5/26) via UDGT and 15% (4/26) via TPT. Among successful arterial catheterizations (n = 9), the mean time to catheterization was 339 ± 198 s: 328 ± 237 s (n = 5) with UDGT and 353 ± 171 s (n = 4) with TPT. The log-rank test showed the two techniques were not significantly different in likelihood of successful arterial catheter placement or time to successful catheterization ( P  = 0.698). An arterial flash occurred in 62% (32/52) of the limbs, 58% (15/26) with the UDGT and 65% (17/26) with the TPT. Complications (self-limiting bruising, hematoma formation) were observed equally between UDGT (3/26 limbs) and TPT (3/26 limbs) in six cats., Conclusions and Relevance: The UDGT did not improve the efficacy of catheter placement compared with the TPT. Few complications were associated with arterial catheterization., Competing Interests: Conflict of interestThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Transrectal palpation (TP) is a basic skill in equine practice. Traditional TP learning methods include instructor-assisted TP in live animals, but this approach presents animal welfare concerns, especially when it needs to be used with large numbers of students. The main objective of this study is to compare two learning methods of TP: traditional methodology with live horses (LH) and alternative methodology using a cadaver with its flanks dissected (CDV). Twenty students with no previous equine TP experience were randomly assigned to two groups: LH ( n = 10) and CDV ( n = 10). Both groups received initial theoretical training before the LH or CDV session. Learning outcomes of both groups were assessed in a new TP session with live horses. All students were asked about their success in palpating seven intra-abdominal structures and objective ultrasound confirmation (UC) was also performed. Successful perception in palpation and by UC was similar in both LH and CDV students' groups, without significant differences. Anonymous surveys answered by these 20 volunteers and by 126 students enrolled in the regulated course who also received this CDV training showed very positive feedback on the CDV methodology. As a limitation of the study, there were few students in each group and most of the results are based on subjective criteria. Nevertheless, we can conclude that CDV is a useful tool for teaching TP, with good learning results, allowing the instructor to see what the student is touching and avoiding the LH disadvantages. This translation was provided by the authors. To view the original article visit: https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme-2023-0010-es .

The aim of this study was to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of palpation relative to necropsy for detection of keel bone fractures (KBF) in broiler breeders. In addition, the study investigated observer reliability of palpation. Four commercial breeder flocks (Ross 308 n  = 2, Ranger Gold n  = 1, Hubbard JA 757, n  = 1) were included in the study. A total of 400 hens and 60 roosters were examined after culling or slaughter, at end of lay (63 weeks). Keel bones were first palpated independently by two raters with a varying degree of experience in palpation of keel bones in laying hens. After palpation, a necropsy with investigation of the keel bone was conducted. The prevalence of KBF at end of lay for hens, as diagnosed by necropsy, varied from 14-58%, while only one in 60 assessed roosters had KBF. Palpation had poor sensitivity, with differences between raters ranging from 56% to 36% when hybrid is not considered. The specificity of palpation for all hybrids together was 85% and 88%, for the two raters, respectively. The two raters had moderate agreement, Gwet's agreement coefficient (95% confidence interval): 0.60 (0.52-0.69). In conclusion, palpation has poor diagnostic accuracy for detection of KBF in broiler breeders, and other methods, like necropsy, must be applied for reliable assessments. KBF appears to be a prevalent condition in different hybrids of broiler breeder hens, but not in roosters. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS This is the first study to investigate palpation as a diagnostic method for detection of KBF in broiler breeders.Palpation has poor diagnostic accuracy for detection of KBF in broiler breeder hens with differences between raters.KBF can be a prevalent problem in broiler breeder hens of several hybrids, but not in roosters.

Objectives: To record the success rate of veterinary professionals and students at identifying the pulse in conscious and anaesthetized dogs. To explore the influence of clinical experience, pulse location, anaesthesia and likely confounding variables on the success of pulse palpation., Study Design: Prospective, observational, randomized study., Animals: A total of 54 client-owned dogs scheduled for general anaesthesia., Methods: For each dog, three participants (senior anaesthetist, anaesthesia resident/nurse, veterinary student/animal care assistant) attempted pulse palpation at three locations (femoral, radial and dorsal pedal pulse) in conscious and anaesthetized dogs. The time to pulse palpation was measured with a stopwatch for each attempt and data were modelled using a multivariate Cox regression survival analysis (significance p < 0.05)., Results: The overall success rate of pulse palpation was 77%, with a median time of 10.91 seconds (interquartile range 9.09 seconds). Success rate was lower in conscious dogs (67%) than in anaesthetized dogs (87%). There was a 77% lower likelihood of success at the radial than at the femoral pulse [hazard ratio (HR) 0.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.38-0.69, p < 0.001]. Veterinary students/animal care assistants had a 71% lower likelihood of success than senior anaesthetists (HR 0.29, 95% CI 0.22-0.39, p < 0.001). Age, weight and American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status had no significant influence. Premedication/anaesthetic drugs, heart rate or mean arterial pressure had no significant influence on the time to pulse palpation in anaesthetized dogs. The median time to palpation was less than 10 seconds for all experience groups at the femoral location., Conclusions: Palpation of the femoral location had the greatest likelihood of success with the least amount of time. Monitoring the femoral pulse during induction of anaesthesia is suggested as a method for confirming spontaneous circulation. Pulse palpation improves with clinical experience., (Copyright © 2022 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In a veterinary medicine curriculum, students' hands-on practice is essential but is still considered one of the major deficiencies in veterinary schools in Europe. After theoretical and basic practical training, students, under the control of experienced veterinarians (supervisors), monitored the reproductive cycle of embryo recipients by transrectal palpation and ultrasound. To evaluate the skills of students, the question "Has she ovulated?" was posed when a dominant follicle ≥ 35 mm was recorded in the previous day's examination and a score of 1 or 0 was assigned in the case of a correct or incorrect answer (test palpation), respectively. Study 1 involved the retrospective evaluation of 3,509 test palpation records of 43 students (31 females, 12 males) and showed a statistically significant positive correlation between the number of test palpations performed and the proportion of correct answers. There was a statistically significant effect of the number of test palpations performed by each student, their gender, and the season on the correct answers. When performing > 50 test palpations, a statistical difference between gender was observed ( p < .05). Study 2 involved the prospective evaluation of 687 records on 52 standardbred or thoroughbred recipient mares collected from nine right-handed female students. The different mares, breed, occurrence of ovulation on the left or right ovary, and the presence of one or more large follicle(s) per ovary had no effect on the correct answers ( p > .05). Individual students' performances were statistically different ( p < .05), ranging from 60% to 92%.

The unusual and tiring physical activity of bovine transrectal palpation (TRP) requires a novel approach to improve students' TRP and pregnancy diagnosis (PD) skills. It has been shown that students who participated in an exercise program and students who had a grip strength (GS) of more than 30 kilograms performed better in bovine PDs. Participation in the exercise program increased students' sensitivity (ability to identify pregnant cows) but did not increase total arm muscle strength. To identify which muscles are used during TRPs and to improve the exercise program, an electromyographic (EMG) analysis was used to identify muscle activation patterns and muscle activity levels during bovine TRPs. Eight subject matter experts (SMEs) each palpated two live cows and one Breed'n Betsy ® rectal examination simulator while an EMG Triggered Stimulator recorded muscle activity. Muscle activation was higher for forearm muscles compared with all other examined muscle groups ( p < .001); was higher during retraction of the uterus and palpation of left and right uterine horn, compared with palpation of cervix, uterine body, left ovary, and right ovary ( p < .001); and showed an endurance pattern. Findings have been used to modify the previously developed exercise program in effort to improve students' TRP and PD skills. The Bovine PD Improvement Exercise Program is available to students through an online application (http://icarus.up.ac.za/vetmlp/) and aims to not only improve GS and TRP accuracy but also stamina and well-being while adding fun to busy study schedules.

Background: To improve bovine transrectal palpation (TRP) and pregnancy diagnosis (PD) training, the effect of a high-intensity one-week training programme for veterinary elective students (N=59) with an interest in production animal practice was evaluated., Methods: Training consisted of exposure to rectal examination simulators, abattoir organs, theory materials and live cow PDs supervised by experienced large animal practitioners. Palpation skills were assessed before and after training using a validated TRP Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) in non-pregnant cows. Each student then performed PDs (n=12) on cows of known pregnancy status. Students' PD accuracy was measured as sensitivity and specificity, being respectively defined as the proportion of pregnant and non-pregnant cows correctly identified., Results: Students' scores improved from the first to the second OSCE (P=0.03), mostly as a result of improved ability to identify uterine symmetry/asymmetry and the presence/absence of a corpus luteum on the right ovary (P<0.01 and P=0.03, respectively). Overall student sensitivity and specificity of PD were 89.1 per cent (95 per cent CI 78.1-92.2 per cent) and 67.7 per cent (95 per cent CI 60.1-74.5 per cent), respectively., Conclusion: This prospective cohort study describes a strategy to improve students' TRP skills with the potential to reduce training time and animal use at teaching institutions by outsourcing student training to private practitioners., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© British Veterinary Association 2020. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Assessing keel bone damage reliably and accurately is a requirement for all research on this topic. Most commonly, assessment is done on live birds by palpation and is therefore prone to bias. A 2-day Training School of the COST Action "Identifying causes and solutions of keel bone damage in laying hens" with 16 participants of variable experience was held where palpation of live hens was followed by consulting corresponding radiographic images of keel bones. We hypothesized that the inter-observer and intra-observer repeatabilities as well as the agreement between palpation and assessment from the radiograph (considered as the accuracy) would increase from day 1 to 2. Repeatability estimates were calculated using the R-package rptR and the change in level of accuracy on day 1 and 2 was analyzed with generalized linear models. As predicted, the inter-observer repeatabilities of the assessments of the fractures and deviations were improved by training, but this improvement differed for fractures and deviations between the cranial, middle, and caudal parts of the keel bone. Intra-observer repeatabilities before training also differed between the different parts of the keel bone and were highest for fractures at the caudal part of the keel bone. The training affected the accuracy of palpation to different degrees for the different parts of the keel bone. A training effect was found for the caudal part of the keel bone in regard to fractures and deviations, but for fractures the training effect was missing for the cranial part and for deviations it was missing for the middle part of the keel bone. In conclusion, the training school involving radiographs improved inter-observer repeatabilities in the diagnosis of fractures and deviations of keel bones and thus had the potential to lead to more comparable results among research groups., (© 2019 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Bovine pregnancy diagnosis (PD) by transrectal palpation (TRP) is one of the most frequently performed procedures in bovine practice, and an important competency for veterinary graduates. It is currently not known if pre-existing TRP skills on non-pregnant cows can be used to predict students' future PD accuracy. The study objective was to evaluate if TRP objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) scores can predict students' future PD accuracy.Fourth year (of a six-year programme) veterinary students (n=128) received TRP and PD training on Breed'n Betsy (BB) simulators and live cows. Students' TRP skills were assessed using a live cow TRP OSCE after completion of the fourth year training. The same students received additional TRP (BB and live cows) and PD (BB) training sessions in the first semester of their fifth year. PD accuracy was assessed after the additional TRP and PD training, five months after the TRP OSCE assessment and measured as sensitivity and specificity (the ability to correctly identify the presence and absence of pregnancy, respectively). Each student palpated six cows transrectally to diagnose pregnancy status and stage for the PD assessment. The TRP OSCE results were analysed as predictors for students' PD accuracy.Students with 'competent palpation skills' on the TRP OSCE had higher PD specificity. The individual OSCE components that were predictive of higher PD accuracy were students' ability to estimate ovarian size, identify uterine position and exclude intrauterine fluid. It was concluded that a TRP OSCE has the ability to predict students' future PD accuracy., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© British Veterinary Association 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Objectives: Present-day diagnosis of hyperthyroidism is often established in the early stages where clinical signs and physical examination findings typically associated with the disease may not yet be present. The purpose of this study was to investigate thyroid palpation score (TPS), total thyroxine (T4), body weight, body condition score and a clinical scoring index, which assesses severity of illness and quality of life, in untreated hyperthyroid cats, healthy cats and cats with non-thyroidal illness., Methods: Fifty-five cats with hyperthyroidism, 45 healthy cats and 327 euthyroid cats with non-thyroidal disease were prospectively enrolled. A Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine any differences between metric data. A χ 2 test was applied to compare nominal data between the three subgroups. Correlation between two variables was analysed using Spearman's correlation coefficient., Results: Almost 80% of the hyperthyroid cats and up to 20% of the healthy cats and cats with non-thyroidal illness had a palpable thyroid gland. Median TPS in hyperthyroid cats was 2, which was significantly higher compared with the other groups. Although there was a significant correlation between TPS and T4 when evaluating all cats, this could not be demonstrated in the three subgroups. Hyperthyroid cats with larger thyroid glands (TPS >3) did not have higher T4 levels. Hyperthyroid cats with lower clinical scores had significantly higher T4 levels compared with hyperthyroid cats with higher scores. Hyperthyroid cats were older and had lower body weights and body condition scores than other cats., Conclusions and Relevance: Hyperthyroid cats were commonly found to have palpable thyroid glands, but they were smaller than previously reported.

The dorsolateral subluxation index of the femoral head is a good proxy of hip dysplasia in dogs. An exploratory, prospective, descriptive study was carried out in order to assess whether the dorsolateral subluxation index may also be useful to improve diagnosis of hip dysplasia in cats. The dorsolateral subluxation index was determined by CT scans simulating the loading position, and compared with measurements of the Norberg-Olsson angle. A total of 82 cats were subjected to radiographic examination of the pelvis, in the standard ventro-dorsal projection, and to CT scans of the pelvis and hips. The Norberg-Olsson angle of each hip was calculated radiographically, while the dorsolateral subluxation index of the femur was calculated on CT images according to a technique recently developed for evaluation of hip dysplasia in dogs. Using the Norberg-Olsson angle a total of 52 hips (31,7%) were diagnosed as dysplastic, 74 (45,1%) as non-dysplastic, and 38 (23,1%) as borderline. Using the dorsolateral subluxation index, values ranged from a minimum of 34.6% to a maximum of 66.6% and four distribution classes were proposed. Findings indicated that the dorsolateral subluxation index previously described as method for quantifying hip dysplasia in dogs is also a feasible method for quantifying hip dysplasia in cats. Future studies are needed to more definitively determine the diagnostic sensitivity of this method., (© 2019 American College of Veterinary Radiology.)

Accurate assessment is essential when evaluating keel bone damage. Palpation is commonly used to assess keel bone damage in living hens. However, there is little information on the accuracy of assessment of deviations and fractures on different parts of the keel, and on the consistency within, and agreement between, assessors. Crucially, although the importance of experience is commonly emphasized, knowledge on its effect is scarce. Ten assessors with or without prior experience palpated the same 50 75-wk-old hens for deviations, medial fractures, and caudal fractures (scored as present/absent). Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, precision, and negative predictive value were determined by comparing palpation scores to post-dissection assessment, and then compared between experienced and inexperienced assessors. To determine the effect of the experience gained during the experiment, hens were subsequently re-assessed. Consistency within, and agreement between, assessors were also determined. Assessors with prior experience were more accurate (proportion of accurately assessed deviations: experienced 0.83 vs. inexperienced 0.79±0.01, P = 0.04; medial fractures: 0.82 vs. 0.68±0.03 in session 1 only, P = 0.04; caudal fractures: 0.41 vs. 0.29±0.03, P = 0.03), and inexperienced assessors classified medial fractures more accurately in session 2 (session 1: 0.68 vs. session 2: 0.77±0.04, P = 0.04). However, effect sizes were small for deviations and even experienced assessors lacked accuracy when assessing caudal fractures. Unexpectedly, deviations tended to be assessed more accurately in session 1 than in session 2, regardless of assessor status (1: 0.83 vs. 2: 0.79±0.01, P = 0.06), suggesting that prolonged assessment contributes to errors. Prior experience decreased specificity and precision of fracture assessment (more unfractured keels were classified as fractured) even though overall accuracy was greater. Intra-rater consistency was fair to good (0.55 to 0.67) for deviations and medial fractures, but poor to fair (0.36 to 0.44) for caudal fractures, and unaffected by prior experience (P = 0.49 to 0.89). In conclusion, experience improves accuracy to a limited extent but does not guarantee high accuracy for all types of damage. Future research should determine if other training methods (e.g., comparison to post-dissection scores or to radiographs) improve accuracy., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Poultry Science Association.)

Damage to the keel bone is a major issue in the laying hen industry. The goal of this study was to compare palpation results of live laying hens to digital computed tomography (CT) images, to assess changes in palpation reliability as training and familiarity increased, and to examine keel bone morphology over time. The longitudinal study consisted of 2 trials of 3 observation periods using 40 different (n = 120) W-36 hens housed in enriched colony cages. The first trial began when hens were 52 to 58 wk of age repeating the trial when the same birds were 74 to 81 wk of age. At 52 wk of age, each hen's keel bone was palpated by a single individual for keel bone caudal tip fractures (Tip), sagittal deviations (Evenness), and transverse deviations (Straightness). After palpation, each hen was placed in a motion limiting restraint and scanned using CT. The hens spent the next 21 d in their cages and on day 21, the hens were collected, palpated, and CT scanned again. The CT scans were imported into Mimics analysis software, 3D models of each keel bone were constructed and evaluated. Each bone and 3D model was scored (0, 1, 2) on the measurement of transverse deviation based on <0.5 cm, 0.51 to 1.0 cm, and >1.0 cm total deviation, respectively. Analysis of data using Proc Freq and Means in SAS 9.3 revealed minimal to moderate kappa values and moderate agreement percentages between palpators and digital analysis. The computer generated 3D models of individual keel bones were compared to palpation scores for Tip, Evenness, and Straightness at the beginning and end of each trial. The visual observations of the 3D models were qualitative, performed by a single individual. Overall, we found CT scanning to be a useful tool in observing changes to the keel bone, we observed changes in palpation accuracy as training/familiarity increased, and examined changes in keel morphology, specifically in the tip, after 52 wk of age., (© 2018 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Objectives: Practicing veterinarians are exposed to unique occupational hazards and zoonotic diseases. National studies have highlighted an increase risk to injuries and a lack of veterinary awareness for these hazards. In Utah (and likely other states), reports of acquired zoonoses are sporadic, and underlying risk factors poorly understood. To better clarify occupational risk factors, the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of Utah veterinarians were examined., Methods: A total sample of 809 Utah veterinarians were identified from the 2017 licensure listing provided by the Utah Division of Professional Licensing. These individuals were invited to participate in an internet-based survey to self-report musculoskeletal injuries associated with large animal palpation practices. The relationships between some variables and Precaution awareness (PA) score rankings were examined using logistic regression and odds ratios., Results: Of 809 veterinarians, 223 (28%) responded, with 209 self-identifying as clinical veterinarians. Frequent palpation of large animals (equine or bovine) was performed by 43 (22%) of 197 responding veterinarians. Joint pain or injury was experienced by 29 (67%) of 43 responding veterinarians who frequently palpated large animals (equine or bovine). Animal bites, needle-sticks, and cuts were the most frequently reported injuries within the past year. There were 44 (22%) of 197 respondents who reported having contracted a zoonotic disease. Most of the respondents failed to use appropriate PPE when examining an ill animal or when handling potentially infectious specimens. Clinical veterinarians who have less than 10 years of experience and work in a practice providing clinic-based services were 2.3 and 3.8 times more likely to have low PA rankings, respectively., Conclusion: Our work underscores the importance for continued clinical veterinarian education on occupational risks associated with musculoskeletal injuries, animal bites, needle-sticks, and cuts. The fact that survey veterinarians reported a high level of zoonotic disease infection illustrates the need for education and training on proper PPE use. Further work is needed to understand why precaution awareness scores were low among this sample of participants in this study. Additional follow-up with veterinarians is recommended to assess availability of large animal handling facilities and safety practices to prevent musculoskeletal injuries.

During minimally invasive spinal surgery, correct identification of the affected intervertebral disc space is critical. Percutaneous palpation is commonly used, but results may be unreliable. Fluoroscopy is the gold standard but can be cumbersome and exposes operators to ionizing radiation. Spinal ultrasound has been described in veterinary medicine and could be a feasible alternative. This prospective, methods comparison study mimicked a minimally invasive spinal surgery in 10 canine cadavers and compared the accuracy of ultrasound and percutaneous palpation for thoracolumbar intervertebral disc space identification, using fluoroscopy as the reference standard. For each experiment, a disc space was randomly chosen. Identification was then attempted using both percutaneous palpation and ultrasound. For ultrasound, a linear probe was used to guide the operator to the correct location. The time necessary to perform each method was recorded. Accuracies for each method were calculated and statistically compared. Effects of body condition score, location of the targeted thoracolumbar intervertebral disc space and learning curve for each method were also evaluated. Ultrasonographic identification was more accurate (96.7% vs. 76.7%; P < 0.03) but took longer (147 s vs. 29 s; P < 0.0001) than percutaneous palpation. Findings from this cadaver study indicated that percutaneous palpation alone had low accuracy for correctly identifying a targeted thoracolumbar intervertebral disc space and supported the use of ultrasound as a method for improving the accuracy. Future studies are needed to assess the method in clinical cases, especially in obese dogs and/or those in which the targeted site is distant from palpable anatomical landmarks., (© 2018 American College of Veterinary Radiology.)

The goal of this prospective pilot study was to use naturally occurring canine mast cell tumors of various grades and stages as a model for attempting to determine how glucose uptake and markers of biologic behavior are correlated. It was hypothesized that enhanced glucose uptake, as measured by 2-[fluorine-18]fluoro-d-glucose-positron emission tomography/computed tomography (F18 FDG PET-CT), would correlate with histologic grade. Dogs were recruited for this study from a population referred for treatment of cytologically or histologically confirmed mast cell tumors. Patients were staged utilizing standard of care methods (abdominal ultrasound and three view thoracic radiographs), followed by a whole body F18 FDG PET-CT. Results of the F18 FDG PET-CT were analyzed for possible metastasis and standard uptake value maximum (SUV max ) of identified lesions. Incisional or excisional biopsies of the accessible mast cell tumors were obtained and histology performed. Results were then analyzed to look for a possible correlation between the grade of mast cell tumors and SUV max . A total of nine animals were included in the sample. Findings indicated that there was a correlation between grade of mast cell tumors and SUV max as determined by F18 FDG PET-CT (p-value = 0.073, significance ≤ 0.1). Based on the limited power of this study, it is felt that further research to examine the relationship between glucose utilization and biologic aggressiveness in canine mast cell tumors is warranted. This study was unable to show that F18 FDG PET-CT was a better staging tool than standard of care methods., (© 2018 American College of Veterinary Radiology.)

Objective: To assess the association between peripheral pulse palpation and Doppler-derived systolic blood pressure (SBP) measurement in dogs presenting to an emergency service., Design: Prospective observational study., Setting: University veterinary teaching hospital., Animals: Ninety-three dogs that were presented to the emergency service. Dogs were eligible for inclusion in the study if a physical examination and a SBP measurement were performed prior to any interventions., Interventions: None., Measurements and Main Results: Both the femoral pulse quality and dorsal metatarsal pulse quality were digitally palpated and assessed as either strong, weak, or absent. The mean SBP in all dogs was 139 mm Hg (± 39 mm Hg). Seventeen (17/93; 18%) dogs were hypotensive with a SBP < 90 mm Hg (range, 40-88 mm Hg). The median SBP was not significantly different between dogs in the absent and present femoral pulse groups (P = 0.120) but the median SBP was significantly different between absent and present metatarsal pulse groups (P = 0.002). Dogs with absent metatarsal pulses were 7.6 times more likely to be hypotensive with a SBP < 90 mm Hg (OR, 7.6; 95% CI, 1.8-32) as compared to dogs with palpable metatarsal pulses. The sensitivity of absent metatarsal pulses to diagnose hypotension (SBP < 90 mm Hg) was 33% (95% CI, 10-65%) and the specificity was 94% (95% CI, 86-98%)., Conclusions: Absent metatarsal pulses are highly specific in the diagnosis of hypotension. However, dogs with palpable metatarsal pulses can still be hypotensive. Dorsal metatarsal pulse palpation is useful during triage assessment of dogs presenting to an emergency service, though it should not be used as the only indicator of a dog's cardiovascular stability and should not replace an actual blood pressure measurement., (© Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2018.)

Large animal veterinary practice is more and more emphasizing herd-health-management. Processes to ensure and optimize economic viability of dairy farming are becoming more important in comparison to treatment of single ill animals. Amongst others, rectal palpation skills are crucial for proper fertility management, rapid and correct diagnosis of early pregnancies, and recognition of cycle or fertility problems. The aim of this study was first to objectively analyse the effectiveness of prevailing teaching methods for rectal palpation of the reproductive tract during the students' "agricultural internship." Simultaneously, the effectiveness of the use of two teaching simulators prior to the first hands-on experience with live animals was compared with proving just theoretical instruction. The results showed that students acted with more confidence when they were trained in groups of three to five. In particular, the subjective as well as the objective training success was greater for those students, who trained with a simulator (Haptic Cow®, Breed'n Betsy®) than for those who only had theoretical training. Furthermore simulator training resulted in a more realistic student assessment of performance, as well as in a better understanding of where reproductive structures were located (cervix, uterus) in live animals. No significant difference in effect of training was found between the different simulators used here. The results of this study suggest that it is in the interest, not only of students but also of the animals, that simulator training occurs before exercises are performed on living animals.

Objective: To evaluate the ability of peripheral pulse palpation to predict systolic blood pressure (SBP) in cats presenting as emergencies., Design: Prospective observational study performed over an 8-month period., Setting: University veterinary teaching hospital., Animals: One hundred two cats presenting to the emergency service. Eligibility for inclusion in the study included a physical examination and a SBP via Doppler technique performed prior to treatment., Interventions: None., Measurements and Main Results: Femoral and metatarsal pulses were digitally palpated and the quality of the pulses was assessed as either strong, moderate, poor, or absent. A concurrent SBP was also recorded. The median SBP for all cats was 92.5 mm Hg (range, 30-240 mm Hg). Femoral pulse quality was found to strongly correlate with the admission SBP (P < 0.001, rho = 0.6755). The median SBP for each femoral pulse quality category (strong, moderate, poor, or absent) was significantly different (P < 0.05). For metatarsal pulses, the median SBP for cats with either absent or strong pulses was significantly different (P < 0.001). Cats with absent metatarsal and femoral pulses had a median SBP of 30 mm Hg (range, 30-105 mm Hg), whereas cats with strong metatarsal pulses had a median SBP of 135 mm Hg (range, 58-210 mm Hg). Absent metatarsal pulses correctly identified cats with a blood pressure of 75 mm Hg or less 84% the time (area under the curve: 0.89, confidence interval 0.81, 0.97)., Conclusions: In cats, peripheral pulse quality assessment by emergency room veterinarians correlates with SBP. With progressive decreases in blood pressure, metatarsal pulses will disappear and it is only with severe hypotension that femoral pulses are absent. An assessment of both dorsal metatarsal pulse and femoral pulse quality during triage may be useful in identifying abnormalities in blood pressure., (© Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society 2015.)

Spinal disease in dogs is commonly encountered in veterinary practice. Numerous diseases may cause similar clinical signs and presenting histories. The study objective was to use statistical models to identify combinations of discrete parameters from the patient signalment, history and neurological examination that could suggest the most likely diagnoses with statistical significance. A retrospective study of 500 dogs referred to the Queen Mother Hospital for Animals before June 2012 for the investigation of spinal disease was performed. Details regarding signalment, history, physical and neurological examinations, neuroanatomical localisation and imaging data were obtained. Univariate analyses of variables (breed, age, weight, onset, deterioration, pain, asymmetry, neuroanatomical localisation) were performed, and variables were retained in a multivariate logistic regression model if P<0.05. Leading diagnoses were intervertebral disc extrusion (IVDE, n=149), intervertebral disc protrusion (n=149), ischaemic myelopathy (IM, n=48) and neoplasms (n=44). Multivariate logistic regression characterised IM and acute non-compressive nucleus pulposus extrusions as the only peracute onset, non-progressive, non-painful and asymmetrical T3-L3 myelopathies. IVDE was most commonly characterised as acute onset, often deteriorating, painful and largely symmetrical T3-L3 myelopathy. This study suggests that most spinal diseases cause distinctive combinations of presenting clinical parameters (signalment, onset, deterioration, pain, asymmetry, neuroanatomical localisation). Taking particular account of these parameters may aid decision making in a clinical setting., (British Veterinary Association.)

Simulation in veterinary education enables clinical skills practice without animal use. A feline abdominal palpation model was created that allows practice in this fractious species. This study assessed the model and rubric using a validation framework of content evidence, internal structure and relationship with level of training. Content Evidence: Veterinarians accepted this model as a helpful training tool for students (median=4 on five-point Likert scale). Internal Structure Evidence: G-coefficients were low for first- and second-year students (0.28 and 0.23), but were acceptable for veterinarians (0.61). Internal consistency values (0.24, 0.42 and 0.67) followed a similar pattern. Thus, scores were more reliable for veterinarians than for the students. Evidence of Relationship with Level of Training: Although level of training impacted reliability, its effect on performance scores was inconsistent. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) identified no differences among the groups of students and veterinarians. However, effect size between first- and third-year students was medium to large (0.62). Effect sizes between the veterinarians and student groups were small. Although the model and rubric appeared valid for experts, modifications would be necessary to generate reliable scores for students. These results allow greater understanding of the needs of students utilising a low-fidelity model., (British Veterinary Association.)

Adult dogs, especially elderly ones, are commonly affected by prostate diseases. Performing rectal palpation during physical examination in dogs is important in small animal clinical diagnosis. Prostate palpation training allows students to learn how to correctly introduce the finger into the rectum and identify the location, size, symmetry, and consistency of the prostate. Alternative methods are needed to teach this technique without using live dogs. Thus, our aim was to develop a canine prostate palpation simulator to provide students with the opportunity to learn the prostate palpation technique in dogs and to assess their opinion of this simulator as a teaching tool. The inner part of the canine mannequin contains a rotation system with three types of prostates that can be exchanged during the exam. Of the 64 participating students, 81% had never used alternative methods and 92.2% had never performed any prostatic palpation. According to the students' opinions, performing a clinical examination on a simulator allowed them to be prepared and familiarized with the palpation technique. They felt satisfied learning a practical method in a harmless way. Both the 3R (replacement, reduction, and refinement) and dog welfare principles were present in most of the students' concerns. We conclude that the simulator can help students to develop clinical skills for prostate palpation in dogs.

Objectives: To evaluate the veterinary student learning outcome of 2 methods of equine rectal examination training., Study Design: Randomized prospective study., Sample Population: Veterinary students (3rd and 4th year; n = 40) and practicing equine veterinarians (n = 10)., Methods: Year 1: Group 1 (n = 11) and Group 2 students (n = 10) received skilled instructor (SI) and laparoscopic-guidance (LG), respectively, during rectal exam instruction. All students were tested on rectal identification of 4 abdominal organs. Year 2: One group of students (n = 19) was trained and subsequently tested using each technique, first SI, followed by LG. Subjective evaluation of laparoscopy as a teaching tool was achieved with veterinary students and equine practitioners., Results: A significantly greater percentage of students having LG compared to SI were able to correctly identify the left kidney (Year 1) and the spleen, cecum, and right ovary (Year 2). A significantly greater proportion of LG trained students in years 1 and 2 (100% and 95%, respectively) were also able to identify 75% of organs compared with SI (27% and 21%, respectively). Both students and veterinarians uniformly provided favorable feedback for LG in teaching rectal palpation skills., Conclusion: The LG method of equine rectal examination instruction resulted in improved learning for identification of several key abdominal organs compared with SI., (© Copyright 2014 by The American College of Veterinary Surgeons.)

Interest in the monitoring of heart rate variability (HRV) has increased recently, as it gives more detailed and immediate information about the level of stress than traditional behavioral or hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal measures. In this study, we evaluated heart rate (HR) and parasympathetic HRV parameters to monitor cardiac stress responses to palpation per rectum (PPR) in lactating (LACT; n = 11) and nonlactating (NLACT; n = 12) dairy cows. Heart rate and HRV were recorded from 40 min before PPR until 120 min after it was completed. Heart rate, the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD), and the high-frequency component (HF) of HRV were analyzed by examining 5-min time windows. To compare cardiac responses to PPR between groups, changes in HR and HRV parameters were calculated as area under the curve (AUC) for LACT and NLACT cows. An immediate increase in HR was detected during PPR in both LACT (+21.4 ± 2.4 beats/min) and NLACT cows (+20.6 ± 2.3 beats/min); however, no differences were found between groups on the basis of parameters of AUC. The increase in HR in both groups along with a parallel decrease in RMSSD (LACT cows: -5.2 ± 0.4 ms; NLACT cows: -5.1 ± 0.4 ms) and HF [LACT cows: -10.1 ± 0.8 nu (where nu = normalized units); NLACT cows: -16.9 ± 1.2 nu] during PPR indicate an increase in the sympathetic, and a decrease in the parasympathetic tone of the autonomic nervous system. The increase in RMSSD (LACT cows: +7.3 ± 0.7 ms; NL cows: +17.8 ± 2.2 ms) and in HF (LACT cows: +24.3 ± 2.6 nu; NLACT cows: +32.7 ± 3.5 nu) immediately after PPR indicated a rapid increase in parasympathetic activity, which decreased under the baseline values 10 min following PPR. The amplitude and the maximum RMSSD and HF values were greater in NLACT cows than in LACT animals, suggesting a higher short-term cardiac responsiveness of NLACT cows. However, the magnitude and the duration of the stress response were greater in LACT cows, as indicated by the analysis of AUC parameters (area under the HRV response curve and time to return to baseline). Cow response to the PPR was more prominent in parasympathetic HRV measures than in HR. Based on our results, the effect of PPR on the cows' cardiac stress responses may have an impact on animal welfare on dairy farms, and investigating the effect of lactation on the cardiac stress reactions could prove useful in modeling bovine stress sensitivity. Further research is needed to find out whether the differences due to lactation are physiological or management related., (Copyright © 2014 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To ultrasonographically quantify experimentally induced effusion of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint of horses and compare results with those obtained with palpation., Sample: 8 forelimbs from equine cadavers and forelimbs of 5 mares., Procedures: Preliminary ex vivo experiments were performed to validate the methods. Then, the DIP joints of the forelimbs of standing horses were serially distended with saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (1, 4, and 10 mL) by injection through an intra-articular catheter. Two ultrasonographers measured distension of the dorsal recess of the DIP joint, and 2 surgeons, who were not aware of the volume injected, graded joint effusion by palpation., Results: Intraobserver and interobserver repeatability was excellent for ultrasonographic measurements. Interobserver agreement for use of palpation to detect joint distension was moderate (κ = 0.45). There was an overall increase in the palpation distension grade with an increase in injected volume. Sensitivity for detection with palpation of larger volumes (4 and 10 mL) was high (92% and 100%, respectively). However, sensitivity was lower (57%) for detection with palpation of minimal distension (1 mL)., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Although palpation provided a reliable clinical assessment of DIP joint effusion for volumes of 4 to 10 mL, ultrasonographic measurements were easy to obtain, more accurate, and able to detect smaller amounts of distension. This may be clinically relevant for the assessment of effusion of the DIP joint that can arise in horses with early osteoarthritis or infectious arthritis with concomitant soft tissue swelling that precludes accurate assessment with palpation.

Shoulder ulcerations are common in breeding sows in production systems but the consequences for the animals in terms of pain or discomfort are not well-described. This study presents data from a histopathological examination of shoulders of sows, specially focusing on the peripheral nerves in the region and the behavioural responses towards palpation of animals with traumatic neuromas but without ulcers. The study included 155 sows from seven Danish herds initially screened and stratified according to absence/presence and size of shoulder ulcers 3-4 weeks post-partum, out of which 71 were free of ulcerations and 84 had different stages of ulceration. Before collection, sows were subjected to shoulder palpation and behavioural responses were registered. From the consecutive pattern of development of ulcerations it is evident that shoulder ulcerations develop from top-to-bottom. A high frequency of traumatic neuromas was found in both healed and unhealed lesions. The observation of viable nerve-ends in shoulder ulcerations makes it likely that ulcerations are associated with pain. Moreover, the presence of traumatic neuromas in healed ulcerations indicates that there is discomfort even after the lesions have healed. This is further supported by the behavioural finding that rubbing behaviour in response to palpation was increased on the day of sample collection of the shoulders in sows with traumatic neuromas but without shoulder ulcers (P=0.053). Further studies are needed for final confirmation but these results suggest that shoulder ulcers may be associated with pain even after healing., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this study was to assess the interobserver reliability (agreement) and accuracy of keel palpation for the purpose of detecting old fractures in an end-of-lay flock of commercial laying hens. The low level of invasiveness and the relative speed at which this evaluation can be carried out lends itself well to use in a welfare audit, but only if the results are reliable and accurate from various assessors. The palpation technique first described by Wilkins and others (2004) was used to manually palpate for keel fractures. The technique was modified in that only keel fractures were considered. Eight assessors with varying laying hen experience palpated 100 live ISA Brown hens that had been in lay for 49 weeks. The hens were then euthanased and examined by dissection to establish whether there had been a keel fracture present (yes/no). The accuracy for individual assessors ranged from 87.1 to 96.8 per cent, with a mean of 91.8 per cent among all eight assessors. The interobserver reliability among all eight assessors was moderate (κ=0.44). Accuracy and κ values were 84.8 per cent and 0.41 for the first 50 hens, and 99.5 per cent and 0.47 for the last 50 hens, respectively, indicating that there was increased accuracy and agreement as the assessors became more experienced at palpation. This level of agreement, and the high level of accuracy, would make this technique an acceptable measure of keel fracture prevalence in a welfare audit.

Background: Questionnaires are a common tool to assess people's opinion on a large scale or to sound them out about their subjective views. The caretakers' opinion about animals' "personality" has been used in many studies. The aim of the present study was to assess whether the owners' subjective evaluation was effective to detect back disorders. Back disorders have been shown to have a high prevalence in working horses. Caretakers from 17 riding schools (1 caretaker/school, 161 horses) were given a questionnaire about their horses' health status, including back disorders. Out of these 161 horses, 59 were subjected to manual palpation of the spine and 102 were subjected to sEMG examination all along the spine., Results: The results showed that subjective caretaker-reported evaluation via questionnaire survey was not efficient to detect back disorders: only 19 horses (11.8%) were reported as suffering from back pain, whereas the experimenters' evaluation detected 80 of them (49.7%) as suffering from back disorders. While most caretakers under-evaluated back disorders, a few "over-evaluated" it (more horses reported as affected than found via clinical evaluations). Horses were less prone to present back disorders when under the care of these "over-attentive" caretakers., Conclusions: This study showed that back pain is difficult to evaluate, even for professionals, and that subjective evaluations using a questionnaire is not valid in this case. The results also highlighted the real need for observational training (behaviours, postures) outside and during riding.

Objective: To compare palpation-guided with ultrasound-guided brachial plexus blockade in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots., Study Design: Prospective randomized experimental trial., Animals: Eighteen adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis) weighing 252-295 g., Methods: After induction of anesthesia with isoflurane, parrots received an injection of lidocaine (2 mg kg(-1)) in a total volume of 0.3 mL at the axillary region. The birds were randomly assigned to equal groups using either palpation or ultrasound as a guide for the brachial plexus block. Nerve evoked muscle potentials (NEMP) were used to monitor effectiveness of brachial plexus block. The palpation-guided group received the local anesthetic at the space between the pectoral muscle, triceps, and supracoracoideus aticimus muscle, at the insertion of the tendons of the caudal coracobrachial muscle, and the caudal scapulohumeral muscle. For the ultrasound-guided group, the brachial plexus and the adjacent vessels were located with B-mode ultrasonography using a 7-15 MHz linear probe. After location, an 8-5 MHz convex transducer was used to guide injections. General anesthesia was discontinued 20 minutes after lidocaine injection and the birds recovered in a padded cage., Results: Both techniques decreased the amplitude of NEMP. Statistically significant differences in NEMP amplitudes, were observed within the ultrasound-guided group at 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes after injection and within the palpation-guided group at 10, 15, and 20 minutes after injection. There was no statistically significant difference between the two groups. No effect on motor function, muscle relaxation or wing droop was observed after brachial plexus block., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: The onset of the brachial plexus block tended to be faster when ultrasonography was used. Brachial plexus injection can be performed in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots and nerve evoked muscle potentials were useful to monitor the effects on nerve conduction in this avian species. Neither technique produced an effective block at the doses of lidocaine used and further study is necessary to develop a useful block for surgical analgesia., (© Published 2012. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.)

Practical Relevance: Nasopharyngeal disease is a common presenting problem in feline medicine., Clinical Challenges: The management of feline nasopharyngeal disease can be challenging at a number of levels. In many cases, a specific diagnosis may remain elusive. Some conditions may not be curable so owners need to understand the requirement for long-term management. In addition, treatment may be compromised by poor patient compliance., Audience: This review, which is directed at any clinicians involved in the management of cats with nasopharyngeal disease, discusses acute rhinitis (cat 'flu) and a variety of conditions causing chronic rhinosinusitis/chronic nasopharyngeal disease. The intention is to assist treatment decision making by reviewing the most appropriate therapies from the options available for these patients., Evidence Base: The information presented in this article is based on peer-reviewed publications and the clinical experience of the authors.

Practical Relevance: Nasal discharge, sneezing and upper respiratory noise are frequent presenting signs in feline practice., Clinical Challenges: The small nasal cavity of the cat can make visualisation of lesions challenging. In addition, investigations may identify only secondary complications of a disease process, rather than the initial aetiological agent., Global Importance: Nasopharyngeal disease is a worldwide problem. However, fungal disease shows regional variations in prevalence., Audience: This review, aimed at general practitioners as well as those undertaking more specialist investigations in feline respiratory disease, aims to provide practical guidance on the approach necessary to obtain a diagnosis in cats with nasopharyngeal disease. It should also help to explain why a specific diagnosis may not always be possible., Equipment: While access to endoscopy and computed tomography is advantageous, extensive information can be gained from equipment readily available in all practices., Evidence Base: The information presented in this article is based on peer-reviewed publications and the clinical experience of the authors.

Diagnosis of corpus luteum (CL) function by rectal palpation (RP) has been widely used for recipient selection of embryo transfer (ET), a technology essential for genetic improvements in cattle. To examine the accuracy of RP diagnosis method, the relationship between RP-based CL function and reproductive performance was compared in this study. In Experiment 1, CL of Holstein heifers on day 7 after estrus was classified into functional or hypoplastic by RP, and the results were compared with ultrasonographic (US) images and plasma progesterone (P4) levels. As a result, heifers with functional CL judged by RP had a mean maximum CL diameter of 20.1 ± 3.1 mm on US and a mean P4 concentration of 8.1 ± 2.3 ng/mL. These values were significantly greater than those of heifers with hypoplastic CL (12.4 ± 5.4 mm, 4.0 ± 2.8 ng/mL) (P < 0.001). In Experiment 2, the length of the estrus cycle was examined between functional CL and hypoplastic CL. The rate of heifers with a normal estrus cycle length with 18-25 days was significantly lower with hypoplastic CL than with functional CL (16/24 vs. 43/46, P < 0.01). In Experiment 3, 543 inseminated heifers were similarly classified by CL function by RP 7 days after estrus. The heifers with functional CL showed higher pregnancy rate compared with the heifers with hypoplastic CL (75.2 vs. 47.9%, P < 0.0001). Finally, the CL function of 66 heifers was examined by RP on day 7 post-estrus, and ET was performed in 49 (74.2%) heifers with functional CL. As a result, 27 (55.1%) of them became pregnant. Taken together, these results reconfirm that RP on day 7 after estrus is useful for selection of heifers with functional CL., (© 2011 The Authors. Animal Science Journal © 2011 Japanese Society of Animal Science.)

Body condition scoring (BCS) is a subjective semiquantitative method of assessing body fat and muscle by palpation of key anatomic features. A previously published BCS system for rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) uses a scale comprising both whole and half units, in which the midrange represents optimal body condition (3.0), lower values represent emaciated to lean conditions (1.0 to 2.0), and higher values (4.0 to 5.0) indicate excessive body fat. A valid BCS system is well described, relevant to the species, has agreement within and between raters, and is consistent with objective measures. Here we correlate the subjective BCS assigned during physical exam with percentage body fat as determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). Adult rhesus monkeys from an indoor-housed breeding colony were evaluated by the veterinary staff and assigned to 1 of 9 BCS score groups to give a minimum of 6 animals in each group. DEXA was used to obtain objective body composition measurements for macaques in each BCS group. Animals in the 'optimal' BCS group (3.0) had 25% body fat on average. Each full unit change in BCS was associated with an approximate 10% change in body fat percentage for macaques in the 2.0-to-5.0 BCS range. Absolute body fat in animals with BCS of 1.0 or 1.5 may be too low for accurate assessment by DEXA.

Body condition scoring (BCS) is a subjective semiquantitative method of assessing body fat and muscle. Scoring systems use a scale in which the midrange represents optimal body condition, lower values represent lean to emaciated conditions, and higher values indicate excessive body fat. A valid BCS system is clearly described, relevant to the species, shows agreement within and between raters, and is consistent with objective measures. The goal of the current study was to assess intra- and interrater variability of a BCS system that uses a 1-to-5 scale and entails the palpation of key anatomic sites (hips, spine, pelvis, thorax, and abdomen) to assess prominence of bony structures, muscle mass, and subcutaneous fat. To assess interrater variability, 4 raters independently assessed BCS in 616 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in 4 age groups: infant, younger than 1 y; juvenile, 1 to 4 y; subadult, 4 to 7 y; and adult, 7 to 17 y. To assess intrarater variability, each rater independently reevaluated a subset of adult macaques (n = 15) within 2 wk of initial evaluation. A weighted κ score was used to analyze intra- and interrater variability. Agreement between raters was highest for subadult and adult macaques, intermediate for juveniles, and least for infants. Intrarater agreement was high for all raters except one, for which it was moderate. Our results suggest that raters applied the BCS system most consistently to adult and subadult macaques and less so to juvenile and infant animals. However, the percentage agreement between raters to within one half of a score unit increased markedly when raters scored infants in the context of 'as is' rather than 'ideal for age.'

The effect of ovarian predominating structures and uterine condition on the result of some diagnostic tools for the evaluation of endometritis was studied in postpartum (pp) Holstein-Friesian dairy cows (n = 58). Endometrial cytology (EC) and the evaluation of vaginal mucus by vaginoscopy or Metricheck were performed weekly from week 3 to 7 pp. The ovarian studies involved the predominating structures including cystic follicles with plasma progesterone (P(4) ; more or <1 ng/ml; >23 mm), corpus luteum (CL), pre-ovulatory follicles (10-23 mm) and small follicles (<10 mm). The uterine conditions comprised uterine involution, tonicity and fluid in uterus (FIU) regarding echogenicity extent. During week 5, the percentage of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN%) was higher (p < 0.05) in animals with pre-ovulatory follicles (mean ± SEM, 26.3 ± 7.6%) than animals having CL (11.0 ± 3.6%). In cystic ovaries, during week 5, PMN% was higher (p < 0.05) in follicular cysts with low progesterone (P(4) < 1 ng/ml; 9.3 ± 2.6%) than those with high P(4) (P(4) ≥ 1 ng/ml; 1.5 ± 1.1%). Moreover, PMN% was higher (p < 0.01) in animals with non-involuted uterus (11.5 ± 7.4%) than those with involuted uterus (2.7 ± 0.6%) during week 7 pp. The animals that had abnormal mucus determined by Metricheck was higher in animals with atonic uterus than those with tonic uterus during week 6 (82.6% vs 51.5%; p < 0.05) and 7 (71.4% vs 25.7%; p < 0.01) pp. In addition, by vaginoscopy, the prevalence of animals with abnormal discharge showing small follicles (100%, 5/5) during week 3 pp and pre-ovulatory follicles (40.0%, 8/20) during week 5 pp was higher (p < 0.05) when compared to those having CL during week 3 (33.3%; 1/3) and week 5 pp (7.7%; 2/26), respectively. In conclusion, endometrial cytology, Metricheck and vaginoscopy were influenced by the predominating various ovarian structures and uterine condition in early pp high-yielding dairy cows., (© 2011 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

The goal of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of keel bone deformities of laying hens in Switzerland. The keel bones of 100 end-of-lay hens from each of 39 flocks (3900 in total) were palpated. On average, 25·4% of the hens had moderately or severely deformed keel bones and the overall prevalence including slight deformities was 55%. 3. Variation between flocks was considerable. Thus, the prevalence of moderately or severely deformed keel bones ranged from 6 to 48%, and the overall prevalence including slight deformities ranged from 20 to 83%. Aviary housing was associated with a higher prevalence of total, and severe or moderate deformations, compared with floor pens. There were no significant differences in the number of deformities between the different plumage colours, hybrids or perch materials.

Objective: To determine the effect of palpation per rectum (PPR) by use of 1 or 2 fetal membrane slips (FMSs) for pregnancy diagnosis during early gestation on pregnancy loss in dairy cattle., Design: Controlled, randomized block design., Animals: 928 healthy pregnant cattle., Procedures: All cattle were determined to be pregnant by use of transrectal ultrasonography at approximately day 31 after estrus and randomly allocated into 2 groups (control group [n = 476 cows] and palpation group [452]). The control group was not subjected to pregnancy diagnosis via PPR. The palpation group was subdivided into 2 groups (PPR FMS 1 [n = 230 cows] and PPR FMS 2 [222]), which involved PPR and pregnancy diagnosis via 1 or 2 FMSs, respectively, during the same examination, which was performed by 1 veterinarian between days 34 and 43 after estrus. All cattle were reevaluated by use of transrectal ultrasonography on days 45 and 60 to determine viability of the embryo and fetus, respectively., Results: Overall pregnancy loss between days 31 and 60 was 14.1%. Pregnancy loss for the control, PPR FMS 1, and PPR FMS 2 groups from days 31 to 60 was 14.5%, 12.6%, and 14.9%, respectively. Embryonic pregnancy loss for the control, PPR FMS 1, and PPR FMS 2 groups was 12.4%, 9.1%, and 9.5%, respectively. Fetal pregnancy loss for the same groups was 2.4%, 3.8%, and 5.9%, respectively., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Pregnancy diagnosis via 1 or 2 FMSs performed during PPR in early gestation did not increase pregnancy loss in dairy cattle.

The objectives of this observational study were to determine and compare diagnostic criteria for postpartum endometritis in dairy cows. Data generated from 1,044 Holstein cows (6 herds) enrolled in a randomized clinical trial were used. Cows were examined for endometritis at 35±3 d (exam 1) and 56±3 d (exam 2) after parturition, using endometrial cytology (cytobrush technique), vaginal discharge scoring (Metricheck device; Simcrotech, Hamilton, New Zealand), and cervical diameter measurement (transrectal palpation). Reproductive data were recorded until 200 d after parturition. Diagnostic criteria for cytological and clinical endometritis were determined based on detrimental effect on subsequent reproductive performance, using logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard models accounting for the effect of herd clustering. Comparison of diagnostic criteria was performed using endometrial cytology as reference test or by quantifying the agreement between diagnostic approaches. At exam 1, diagnostic criteria were ≥6% polymorphonuclear cells and mucopurulent or worse (purulent or foul) vaginal discharge for cytological and clinical endometritis, respectively. At exam 2, diagnostic criteria were ≥4% polymorphonuclear cells and mucopurulent or worse vaginal discharge for cytological and clinical endometritis, respectively. Cows were classified as having cytological endometritis only, clinical endometritis only, or both cytological and clinical endometritis. Prevalence at exam 1 was 13.5, 9.4, and 5.8% for cytological endometritis only, clinical endometritis only, and both cytological and clinical endometritis, respectively. The detrimental effects of cytological and clinical endometritis on reproductive performance were additive. Among cows with clinical endometritis, only 38 and 36% had cytological endometritis at exam 1 and exam 2, respectively. Combination of diagnostic criteria improved neither the accuracy for predicting cytological endometritis nor the agreement between cytological and clinical endometritis. Overall, these results suggested that cytological and clinical endometritis may represent different manifestations of reproductive tract disease. They also suggested that use of the terminology clinical endometritis may not be accurate and that purulent vaginal discharge may be more descriptive., (Copyright © 2010 American Dairy Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Radiation treatment planning is performed on images that do not take variation in patient position into account. To compensate for expected variations in position of the patient, a three-dimensional expansion of the clinical target volume, or set-up margin, is added. Variations in patient position can be decreased through use of an immobilization device, allowing selection of a smaller set-up margin. The objective of this prospective study was comparison of interfractional variation in patient position between set-ups of the canine head region using palpation of bony landmarks and set-ups using a head-repositioning device. Fiducial markers were attached to the skull bones of three research dogs, and the dogs were positioned as for a typical radiation treatment of the head region using both set-up methods. A kilovoltage on-board imager was used to acquire orthogonal images and the difference between the x-, y-, and z-axis coordinates of each fiducial marker relative to the initial reference isocenter was measured. The difference in patient position for each axis coordinate was significantly lower for set-ups using the head-repositioning device than for set-ups using bony landmarks (P < 0.05). Ninety-five percent of the absolute values of the displacement vector differences were < 4.62 mm for set-up using bony landmarks, and < 1.93 mm for set-up using the head-repositioning device. A minimum set-up margin of 5-6 mm is recommended when patient set-up is based on bony landmarks and of 2-3 mm when the head-repositioning device is used.

Contents: In the last decade, there has been a significant increase in the quality and commercial use of frozen equine semen. The emergence of new reproductive technologies, coupled with the high prices for an insemination dose from some stallions, the increasing costs of import and export and the marketing policies of stallion agents or owners in the sport horse industry has stimulated the fractionation of doses for insemination. Consequently, the sperm number and the volume of an insemination dose are significantly reduced. To deliver lower doses of sperm in lower volumes compared to the standard dose, two techniques are used in clinical practice. Semen can be delivered hysteroscopically (HI) or by rectally guiding a flexible pipette to the tip of the desired uterine horn (RI). Both techniques have been described with good success and have triggered an incentive to further reduce the number of spermatozoa without having a negative effect on fertility. This article will review the expected success of both techniques in clinical settings and will highlight their advantages and disadvantages both for the mare and stallion. In addition, some of the implications of reducing sperm numbers on the industry will be discussed. From the available information, it is evident that lower sperm numbers deposited by RI or HI to deliver the inseminate can result in acceptable pregnancy rates with fresh or frozen semen in commercial settings. These methods of insemination could have major implications in the implementation and commercialization of new and emerging technologies in the equine industry.

This article describes a study of the behaviour of double muscled Belgian Blue (BB) cows during the peri partum period to assess the differences in pain perception in cows calving per vaginam vs cows delivering by caesarean section (CS). In one herd, a total of 30 multiparous cows, of which 17 delivered by CS and 13 calved per vaginam, were closely observed at approximately 1 month before calving and at days 1, 3 and 14 after parturition. The main behavioural indicators of pain were alertness, transition in posture from standing to lying and vice versa, aggressive behaviour, vocalization, rumination quality, reaction on wound and vulva pressure and the percentage of visible eye-white. The main significant differences were lower overall activity and more transition in posture in animals that delivered by CS than in cows that calved naturally. Less time was spent on eating and ruminating in the CS group, their total resting time was longer and their total standing time was shorter. These significant differences were only observed on the first day after calving. Cows of the CS group reacted significantly more when pressure was put on the left flank on the first, third and fourteenth day after calving, whereas animals that calved per vaginam showed more reaction when pressure was put on the area around the vulva, but only on the first day. Based on the results of the present study, we can conclude that there are some significant short-term behavioural differences between BB cows that calve naturally and those that deliver by CS, but in general, the differences are subtle and of short duration.

Two hundred fifty-eight Holstein cows (n=344 lactations) from seven dairy herds were examined every month by vaginoscopy and transrectal palpation to determine the prevalence of urovagina, to investigate its effects on fertility, and to determine some risk factors for urovagina. Accumulation of urine in the vagina of a cow was diagnosed as urovagina and was classified into mild (urine only on the floor of vagina), moderate (urine covering less than or equal to half portion of the external cervical os), or severe (urine covering more than half or whole portion of the external cervical os). In total, 26.7% of lactations had urovagina (mild 11.3%, moderate 11.0%, and severe 4.4%). Survival analysis was used to derive the case definition of clinically relevant urovagina based on the factors associated with increased time to conception. Only moderate (hazard ratio [HR]=0.39) and severe (HR=0.20) degrees of urovagina were associated with reduction in pregnancy rate and thus defined as clinically relevant urovagina. Cows with clinically relevant urovagina had decreased AI submission rate (HR=0.52) and pregnancy rate (HR=0.35), required more inseminations per conception (5 vs. 2; P<0.001), had more days open (370 vs. 136; P<0.001), and were more likely not to get pregnant by 210 d postpartum (odds ratio [OR]=6.62) and to be culled for any reasons (OR=5.32) or for reproductive reasons (OR=9.54) compared with those in cows with no urovagina. Cows with clinically relevant urovagina had a higher risk of endometritis (36.4% vs. 9.2%; P<0.001) compared with that in cows without urovagina. Cow, low BCS at first postpartum examination (OR=2.85), endometritis within 60 d (OR=2.50), and horizontal vulva (OR=9.30) were risk factors for urovagina. In conclusion, 15.4% of lactations had clinically relevant urovagina that increased the risk of endometritis and had detrimental effects on fertility. Individual susceptibility, low BCS, and horizontal vulva increased the risk of diagnosing urovagina in Holstein cows.

Objective: To estimate specificity, sensitivity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of tests and signs used for the diagnosis of cranial cruciate ligament failure in dogs., Methods: One stifle in each of 42 dogs was examined: 25 "affected" and 17 "control" dogs. All dogs were subjected to the following tests when conscious: cranial drawer, tibial compression, patellar tendon palpation and palpation of the medial aspect of the joint. Under general anaesthesia, cranial drawer and tibial compression tests were repeated and a lateral stifle radiograph was taken to evaluate changes of the infrapatellar fat pad. The results were analysed using a 2 x 2 table method. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were estimated., Results: The sensitivity of the cranial drawer and tibial compression tests was surprisingly low when performed on conscious patients but significantly better when performed under anaesthesia. Similarly, palpation of the medial aspect of the stifle joint cannot be considered a reliable indicator of cranial cruciate ligament injury. Patellar palpation and radiographic assessment showed excellent sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value., Clinical Significance: In the diagnosis of cranial cruciate ligament, it is essential that the clinician is aware of each test's features and limitations to reduce the risk of misdiagnosis.

To relate thyroid size to routine blood parameters and T(4) status the ventral neck of 161 cats with clinical signs consistent with hyperthyroidism was examined by two independent observers using a semi-quantitative palpation system. Thyroid gland size of each side was scored from 0 (non-palpable) to a maximum of 6 (>25 mm). In 127 of the 161 cats, at least one thyroid gland was palpable. The palpation score was significantly correlated with the T(4) concentration. The 17 hyperthyroid cats had significantly higher palpation scores than the 110 euthyroid cats. Euthyroid animals with a palpation score >or=3 were significantly older, had higher body weights, lower alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, phosphate, and urine specific gravity, but higher lipase and creatinine concentrations than hyperthyroid cats. Our study demonstrates that although no reliable conclusion on the functional status of the thyroid can be drawn based on its size the likelihood of hyperthyroidism increases with increasing size of the gland.

The purpose of the study was to use two palpation methods (Bardens and Ortolani), a radiographic distraction view, three computed tomography (CT) measurements (dorsolateral subluxation score, the lateral center-edge angle, and acetabular ventroversion angle) and two magnetic resonance (MR) imaging hip studies (synovial fluid and acetabular depth indices) in the early monitoring of hip morphology and laxity in 7-9 week old puppies; and in a follow-up study to compare their accuracy in predicting later hip laxity and dysplasia. The MR imaging study was performed with the dog in dorsal recumbency and the CT study with the animal in a weight-bearing position. There was no association between clinical laxity with later hip laxity or dysplasia. The dorsolateral subluxation score and the lateral center-edge angle were characterized by a weak negative correlation with later radiographic passive hip laxity (-0.26 < r < -0.38, P < 0.05) but its association with hip dysplasia was not significant. There was an association between early radiographic passive hip laxity and synovial fluid index with later passive hip laxity (0.41 < r < 0.55, P < 0.05) and this was significantly different in dysplastic vs. nondysplastic hips (P < 0.05). There was no association between the remaining variables and later hip laxity or dysplasia. The overlapping ranges of early passive hip laxity and synovial fluid index for hip dysplasia grades and the moderate correlations with the later passive hip laxity make the results of these variables unreliable for use in predicting hip laxity and dysplasia susceptibility.

Thyroid gland palpation is an important aid for diagnosing feline hyperthyroidism in an early stage to prevent development of deleterious complications. Our objectives were to assess within- and between-examiner agreement for two thyroid gland palpation techniques in cats and to correlate palpation results with ultrasonographic thyroid measurements. Nine client-owned hyperthyroid (12.6 +/- 2.4 years) and 10 healthy control cats (7.4 +/- 5.4 years) entered this prospective study. Both thyroid glands of all cats were palpated twice by three blindfolded clinicians with the classic palpation technique [technique 1 (T1)] and the technique described by Norsworthy GD, Adams VJ, McElhaney MR, Milios JA [(2002a) Relationship between semi-quantitative thyroid palpation and total thyroxine concentration in cats with and without hyperthyroidism. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 4, 139-143] [technique 2 (T2)]. A semi-quantitative score from 1 to 6 was assigned to the gland size. After clipping of the ventral cervical region, another palpation session followed by ultrasonography of the thyroid glands was performed. Average weighted kappa-values within- and between-examiners were 0.864 and 0.644 for T1 and 0.732 and 0.532 for T2. T1 did lead to significantly smaller within- (P=0.007) and between-examiner (P=0.048) differences than T2. Significant correlation coefficients (P<0.001) between the palpation scores of both techniques and ultrasonographic thyroid lobe length (T1: 0.43; T2: 0.38) were observed. No significant difference before and after clipping was found (T1: P=0.503; T2: P=0.607). The first time that all cats were palpated by either technique, significant score differences between control and hyperthyroid cats were observed both for T1 (P=0.002) and T2 (P=0.003). Both feline thyroid gland palpation techniques have good within- and between-examiner agreements. Based on this study, the classic palpation technique is preferred.

The present study investigated the histological prevalence of subclinical prostatic disease in a canine mixed-breed population. The reliability of digital rectal examination (DRE) as a screening test for subclinical prostatic disease was also evaluated. DRE was performed on 500 male dogs (age range 1 to 21 years) before the dogs died of diseases not related to the prostate. Necropsies of these dogs were performed and prostates were collected for histological evaluation. The overall prevalence of subclinical prostatic disease was 75.6%. The most prevalent subclinical prostatic diseases were benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) (44.8%), prostatitis (23.6%) and prostatic neoplasia (3.6%). The prevalence of subclinical BPH and prostatic neoplasia increased with age but that of prostatitis was not influenced by age. The prevalence of subclinical BPH and prostatitis were higher in intact than castrated dogs. DRE had a high specificity (75%) and positive predictive value (87%), but a low sensitivity (53%) and negative predictive value (34%).