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This study aimed to describe the distribution and nutritive value of woody species growing in clay-loamy and red-brown sand from selected localities of North West, South Africa. Three 2.2 km transects, radiating from homesteads, which served as replicates, were established at each of four selected grazing areas. Nine 10 * 10 m homogenous vegetation units (HVU), 20 m apart, were marked in each transect. Woody plant density, height and canopy cover (CC), were recorded, and chemical properties and degradability via in vitro ruminal fermentation of harvested leaves were measured. Raisin bush (Grewia flava), Buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata) and Camel thorn (Vachellia erioloba) were the common species across both soil types. Soil type influenced (P

MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus People are increasingly concerned with the quality of water they drink. Globally, there is still an alarming rate of people who do not have access to basic services such as a supply of clean drinking water from the faucets. This is greatly concerning because our natural water reserves are diminishing exponentially as a result of climate change. Additionally, our water sources are increasingly polluted by anthropogenic activities; which makes the minority of people who are dependent on direct water source consumption at a higher health risk. In the Republic of South Africa, municipalities and independent water boards treat and supply domestic water to urban, semi-urban and some rural areas. This water is mainly for drinking purposes, hence it must meet the specified drinking water quality guidelines according to the South African National Standards (SANS 241) in order to be deemed safe for domestic use. The North West province, in general, is under-resourced, and made of under-privileged communities. Most municipalities in the North West are battling to maintain the aging water infrastructures. Hence, there is a challenge with the water quality, and supply, in places like Mmabatho. In this study, all parameters are measured and compared to specified drinking water quality limits according to the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Department of Water Affairs; and then discussed with reference to the national drinking water standards (SANS 241). Current improvements of analytical methods allow for the detection of impurities, even at lower concentrations, and make it easier to ascertain the quality of the water. This study occurred at the water treatment plants of Mmabatho and Klerksdorp. The plant operators from Mmabatho Water Treatment Plant and Midvaal Water Company assisted with the collection of water samples from designated water sampling points; (i) before the treatment process (inlet), and (ii) after the treatment process (outlet). Sterilised and treated water sampling containers that were already labelled accordingly, were used to collect water for microbiological analysis. Sampling containers for chemical analysis were prewashed and oven dried prior to use. Physical parameters were measured in situ using various hand-held instruments; while the chemical and microbiological parameters were analysed ex situ using various laboratory instruments. Data processing, calculations and statistical analysis of all water quality variables was performed on results using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05% level of significance with the objective of evaluating the significant differences among the two study areas as well as the seasonal variations. At the Midvaal Water Company, in Klerksdorp; the mean values of pH, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS) before treatment were 8.86, 20.79 °C, 72.00 mS/cm, 21.09 NTU, 451.00 mg/L and 49.40 mg/L. After treatment, the mean values were 7.96, 23.80 °C, 73.75 mS/cm, 0.46 NTU, 482.00 mg/L and 35.75 mg/L. At the Mmabatho Water Treatment Plant, in Mmabatho; the mean values of the physical parameters: pH, temperature, EC, turbidity, TDS and TSS before treatment were 8.64, 20.88 °C, 222.25 mS/cm, 23.39 NTU, 428.39 mg/L and 284.27 mg/L. After treatment, the mean values were 8.81, 21.34 °C, 193.25 mS/cm, 6.01 NTU, 240.51 mg/L and 151.32 mg/L. All physical parameters from Klerksdorp were within specifications. The physical parameters in Mmabatho were within specifications, except for electrical conductivity and turbidity. The concentration of major ions nitrate, sulphate, chloride, sodium, magnesium and calcium before treatment in Klerksdorp were 1.51, 129.48, 50.44, 58.85, 21.22 and 58.51 mg/L. After treatment, the mean concentration were 1.77, 163.42, 54.79, 58.10, 23.87 and 63.69 mg/L. In Mmabatho, the concentration of these major ions before treatment were 2.66, 150.13, 222.35, 130.38, 26.72 and 172.60 mg/L. After treatment, ions concentration in Mmabatho were 1.22, 185.51, 226.29, 126.98, 22.67 and 155.67 mg/L. All major ions after treatment were well within specifications at both study areas, except for high levels of calcium concentration in Mmabatho. The concentration of free chlorine before treatment in Klerksdorp and Mmabatho was 0.00 mg/L. After treatment, the concentration of free chlorine was 1.49 and 3.87 mg/L in Klerksdorp and Mmabatho, respectively. These values fall within specified concentration for free chlorine after treatment. The mean concentration for total hardness for Klerksdorp and Mmabatho before treatment was 228.71 and 356.94 mg/L, respectively. After treatment, the total hardness was 55.19 and 264.79 mg/L, respectively. The hardness concentration was high at both sites before treatment, however, only in Klerksdorp this concentration fell within specifications after treatment. In Mmabatho, the total hardness concentration remained high. The mean values for Escherichia coli (E. coli) in Klerksdorp and Mmabatho before treatment were 29.75 and 33.50 CFU/100 mL, respectively. The total coliform detected at both sites before treatment was 38883.90 and 51190.25 CFU/100 mL, respectively. After treatment, both E. coli and total coliform were not detected at both study sites. The overall results for both the study sites after the water treatment process were comparable with the specified domestic water quality standards according to the SANS 241, except for the turbidity, electrical conductivity, total hardness and calcium at the Mmabatho Water Treatment Plant. This suggests that there is more work that needs to be done to investigate and safeguard the water sources in the North West province. This, in turn, will make it easier to mitigate and improve the water treatment processes in Mmabatho. Masters

PhD (Chemistry), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus This study was conducted to assess the status of waste information on municipal solid waste management with particular interest in waste recycling and waste-to-energy (WtE) generation projects. The North West province of South Africa was selected as a study area because it is experiencing rapid development, population growth, lacks proper waste management strategies and lacks information on generated waste. On the other hand, existing waste management in North West province is rather poor, with no information on separation of waste, no known treatments of waste apart from the popular disposal of waste in controlled and uncontrolled open landfills where waste is burnt for volume reduction. The study used a quantitative research design built around field observations and measurement of elements of the waste chain to generate primary data sets. The information was supplemented by the use of secondary data sets of documents, records on waste information and waste management and informal consultations with officials responsible for the individual waste directorates at local municipalities. Multiple correlation and linear regression techniques were used to analyse primary and secondary data sets. The results showed that it is a challenge for North West province to have waste information that meets the requirements of the South African waste information system (SAWIS) on waste data collection and submission. The results revealed that information along the waste chain is not being collected. It also shows lack of information on other waste treatment strategies apart from landfilling in the province. There is no adequate information on WtE generation and recycling, but there is potential for stand-alone WtE generation and waste recycling in the province. Weaknesses are noted in the current waste information collection system. These include lack of proper tools for information collection, processing and dissemination, lack of compliance with the national waste information regulators by role players, lack of proper handling of waste information during collection and processing and lack of collection of data or information from point of waste generation through to treatment or disposal. The results were then deployed in the design of an interactive waste information platform (WIP) that overrides current constraints. The contribution of the WIP is that it allows for the inclusion of measures originally not covered within exiting municipal tools, representing a break-through, the first of its kind in South Africa. The WIP introduces a methodological innovation in data collection, allows for data optimization, has an impact on decision structures and is compatible with the existing SAWIS. Doctoral

MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus South Africa is a mining country with a huge reserve of large deposits of gold, platinum, and coal, among others. However, contamination of soils and plants by heavy metals within the mining environment in South Africa has not been investigated as it should have been. Heavy metals have the tendency of entering the food chain and end up being consumed by humans either directly or indirectly. At high concentration in living body, heavy metals damage organs. This study analyzed the concentration of heavy metals in soils and the plant found in the environment of a gold mine located in the North West Province, South Africa. The sampling depths for soil were 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm at various distances, namely 500 m and 1000 m around the mining site. The soil and plant, Eragrostic hy noides, samples were analysed for Cd, Zn, Pb and As using inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (ICP-MS). Concentration factor was used for the determination of heavy metal uptake by the plant. The risk quotient was used in this study to determine the health risk associated with heavy metal contamination. A spatial variability of heavy metal contamination was created in the Geographical Information System environment by ordinary kriging. The concentrations of heavy metals in the soil showed that the levels are within the South African threshold and below some other countries ' thresholds. In the leaf and the root tissue of the sampled plant, the trend of heavy metal concentration was Zn > Pb > As > Cd. The results of the concentration factor (CF) revealed that Eragrostic hypnoides accumulated Zn and Cd from the soil. The CF was above 1. However, the CF of the arsenic and lead was below 1 in all the sampled locations except at the Northern part of the mine within the 1000 m radius of the mine. The map of spatial variability revealed that higher concentration of heavy metals were found close to the mining site. In conclusion, the heavy metal concentration accumulated in the plant of the study area could be harmful to the health of the direct and indirect consumer. Future study should be done on agricultural products produced within this vicinity in order to assess the concentration of heavy metals in the crops most especially the extensive maize plantation within the locality. Masters

PhD (Animal Science), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus The study was designed to assess spatial variation in terms of density, species composition and nutritive value of vegetation in selected communal grazing lands located in the Ngaka Modiri Molema district municipality of the North West province. For the first study on tree species assessement, three 2.2 km transects, which served as replicates were established at each of the selected grazing areas. The three transects were placed at least 200 m from each other. Along each transect, points were marked within 500-700 m (considered as near sites), >700 m-1.4 km (middle site) and >1.4 km – 2.2 km (far sites) from the homesteads to form 9 sampling sub-transects. Three 10 m x 10 m homogenous vegetation units were marked at each sub-transect and spaced 20 m from each other. The homogenous units (HVU) were used to record density, height and canopy diameter of individual woody plants. Plant identification was carried out using a combination of scientific and indigenous local knowledge. A total of 21 browse species were found across all sites. Grewia flava and Acacia erioloba were the most dominant species in all soil types across the study areas. There was no significant effect of distance from the homesteads on density, canopy cover (CC), total tree equivalent (TTE) and plant height. There was a significant effect of soil type on density, canopy cover, total tree equivalent and plant height. The red-brown sand soil type had higher (P

PhD (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2018 The Klip River wetland is one of the most economically important ecological river system in South Africa as it plays two roles: water purification in the Vaal River system and is also a source of water. However, several studies have demonstrated that the wetland is extremely degraded and has lost capability to perform the two function s. As a large catchment river system, the Klip River runs through different land uses and is subsequently prone to high water quality variability along its course and over time. The main aim of this research was to determine the spatial and temporal mechanisms influencing water quality, sources of pollution and the associated risks in the Klip River catchment. Thus informing the process of developing a framework for the monitoring and management of water quality in the catchment. The methodology was centered on data collected from water quality monitoring activities from February 20 I 6 to January 2017. Water samples were collected along the profile of the Klip River and analyzed for Al, As, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Cd, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, U, V and Zn using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), and nitrates and phosphates using Spectrophotometry. Water quality results were compared against South African water quality guidelines (SA WQG) for aquatic ecosystem protection, agricultural and domestic uses. To assess the seasonal and spatial dynamics of the water quality, multivariate statistics were employed. Furthermore, to classify seasonality and spatial level of pollution in the catchment, various environmental indices were computed; there included heavy metal pollution index, Potential ecological risk index, Comprehensive Pollution Index. In addition, analysis into the river's ability to self-purify was conducted using River Recovery Capacity and Capacity for self-purification per unit length calculations. Findings revealed that the Klip River water quality is not in compliance with the SA WQG for aquatic ecosystem protection, agricultural and domestic uses thereby rendering the water unsuitable for its designated uses. Consequently, water quality in the Klip River Catchment (KRC) poses significant ecological and health risks. Furthermore, water quality in the Klip is influenced by spatial and seasonal factors. As such the KRC was grouped into two homogenous water quality zones, i.e. the upstream and downstream zones, and this was attributed to the influence of land use activities. Furthermore water quality in the KRC displayed homogenous characteristics in the 2015/16 season comprising of the period from February to June, and 2016/17 season comprising of the months from July to January. This was attributed to the effects of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and La Nina phenomena phenomena respectively. Critical pollution was recorded in the upstream zone, in the 2015/16 season relative to the downstream and the 2016/17 season respectively. This was attributed to the evaporation and consequently low volume of water in the river. The main sources of pollution in the KRC included lithological, traffic, mining, point discharges from industries and sewage effluents. These sources varied between seasons and spatial locations. It was also observed that the Klip River possesses a natural capability even though limited, to self-purify for some heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni and Zn). A surface water quality management plan was developed which highlighted the most impaired designated water uses and overall priority pollutants in the KRC. The management plan was used to identify appropriate water quality management measures specific to the KRC. Furthermore a framework for monitoring and evaluation of water quality was developed which outlines the pollutants to monitor per site and the specific uses for which to monitor. Findings from this research demonstrated the adeptness of applying multivariate statistics in dimension reduction, understanding of complex water quality monitoring data and identification of pollution sources in the Klip River Catchment. In addition, findings from this study serve as a guideline for developing strategies for monitoring, evaluating and managing surface water quality in other catchments. These findings can also be used to inform policy makers and various stakeholders to enable the design of efficient mechanisms for water quality management. Doctoral

PhD (Environment Science), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2018 The rehabilitation of degraded wetlands is a very costly approach owing to the goals, options and funding as well as the involvement of different stakeholders and their different interests. This study investigated the different factors that influence the performance of rehabilitation projects. The investigation sought to design a wetland rehabilitation project that is feasible and ecologically sustainable. A quantitative research design was used to document and collect data. The observation technique was employed to gather data in the field. Field observations complemented the structured face-to-face interviews. Topographic maps and aerial photographs of the study area were used to identify settlements, wetlands and rehabilitation projects. Various statistical packages such as ANOVA, Pearson Correlation analysis and T-Tests were used to analyse and interpret the findings and draw conclusions on the set hypotheses. Literature reviewed in this study show that wetland loss is an on-going phenomenon that needs drastic efforts to reverse it. Data obtained from the Meteorological Services Department demonstrate that climate change is an on-going trend characterised by an increase in the intensity and frequency of drought. The findings from field observations and interviews reveal further the need for a paradigm shift from simple and basic rehabilitation measures to comprehensive state of the art rehabilitation interventions in order to re-establish the structure, function and biological integrity of wetlands. Wetland rehabilitation only covers 23% of the possible degraded wetlands that should be rehabilitated. Technical, managerial, financial and community circumstances contribute to the current poor state of wetland rehabilitation in Zimbabwe. Financial funding of wetland rehabilitation is limited and in cases where it is availed, rehabilitation structures do not reflect the massive amounts injected into the project. Given that the current wetland rehabilitation projects lack a systems thinking approach in addressing the underlying causes of wetland loss more needs to be done. The studies underscore that current rehabilitation efforts are commendable but fail to address the sustainability of the wetlands themselves and the rehabilitation projects themselves. The research findings suggest ways to improve rehabilitation projects. A national wetland degradation response strategy should include but not limited to wetland rehabilitation. The rehabilitation plan should be site specific and comprehensive enough. Strong institutions such as Wetland Rehabilitation Committees or Teams responsible for rehabilitation should be established. The starting point would be to establish wetland district rehabilitation teams that should comprise of 10-15 project implementers. Their responsibility will be to install and maintain rehabilitation structures. These teams can be employed on a fulltime basis. Some of the proceeds from wetland production should be reinvested for wetland rehabilitation through buying fence and introducing agroforestry activities instead of over-reliance on donor fund. These results are used to design a Wetland Sustainability Model (WESUMO) that provides tools for wetland rehabilitation . Doctoral

MSc (Environmental Sciences and Management), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2018 The deterioration of surface water quality is of great global concern since water is a crucial resource for all aspects of life. In South Africa, water scarcity continues to plunge the country and this has led to the damming of major rivers in order to cater to the acute demand for water. The South African constitution stipulates that wastewater effluent from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) could be discharged into surface water, as one of the alternatives to combat issues of water scarcity in the country. Such is the case in Mahikeng, the capital of the North West Province, South Africa. The town's main wastewater treatment works (Mmabatho WWTW) receives both domestic and commercial wastewater from Mahikeng, treats it using secondary wastewater treatment processes, and discharges its treated effluent into surface water (Setumo dam). Setumo dam serves as the town's main source of water, which is abstracted by the Mmabatho water treatment works (WTW), purified and supplied to the urban and peri-urban areas of Mahikeng. The communities surrounding the dam also utilise the raw water from the dam for domestic purposes. It is on this account that this study assessed the impact of wastewater effluent discharges onto the quality of water in Setumo dam. Two hypothesis were formulated in order to achieve the overall aim of the study, where the first hypothesis (HO) stated that the wastewater effluent discharged by Mmabatho WWTW has no significant impact on Setumo dam water quality whereas the second hypothesis (Hl) stated that the wastewater effluent discharged by Mmabatho WWTW has a significant impact on Setumo dam water quality. Wastewater effluent and dam water samples from Mmabatho WWTW effluent discharge pipe and Setumo dam respectively were collected during the wet and dry seasons. The collected samples were then analysed for physicochemical (temperature, pH, EC, TDS, nitrates and phosphates, and heavy metals - arsenic, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, and zinc) and bacteriological parameters (heterotrophic bacteria, total and faecal coliforms). Results from the wastewater effluent analysis were compared with the DWA (2013) wastewater effluent quality standards while results from the dam water analysis were compared with the SANS:241 (2015) and WHO (2011) drinking water quality standards. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis was used to detect the presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Klebsiella. One-way ANOV A was used to examine the statistical seasonal and spatial differences in the analysed dam water parameters. The analysis of the health risks associated with the consumption of water from Setumo dam was done using the risk quotient equation and the water quality index (WQI) was computed to determine the overall quality of the dam water. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine the association between the pollutants in the wastewater effluent and the dam water. During the wet season, pH, EC, nitrates, phosphates, arsenic, copper, and lead were found to be above the DW A (2013) wastewater effluent quality standards while phosphates, lead, and zinc were above the permissible wastewater effluent limits during the dry season. In the dam water, all the physicochemical parameters were within the SANS:241 (2015) and WHO (2011) drinking water quality standards during the dry season except for nitrates, arsenic, lead during the wet season. The bacterial counts were significantly higher in both the wastewater effluent and the dam water during both sampling seasons except for heterotrophic bacteria in the dam water. As expected, the results from the PCR analysis confirmed the presence of E. coli in both the wastewater effluent and the dam water during both seasons. No Klebsiella was detected in the wastewater effluent and dam water during both sampling seasons. The detection of E. coli indicates that inadequately treated wastewater effluents may have the potential impact of disseminating pathogenic bacteria to the surface water intended for both human and animal use and this could, in tum, result in an outbreak of water-borne diseases. The one-way ANOVA results suggest that there exists a statistically significant seasonal variation in the dam water quality (0 ~ p :S 0.04) in all analysed parameters except for the EC, TDS, and phosphates, whereas EC, TDS, and total coliform bacteria yielded significant spatial variations (0 ~ p :S 0.09). The risk assessment analysis revealed that nitrates, arsenic, and lead presented significant health risks to Setumo dam water consumers during the wet season (RQ > 1) and the faecal coliform bacteria during both seasons. Water quality index results revealed that the dam water quality varied between the categories "bad" in the wet season to "medium" in the dry season which would be expected given the changes in season. The Pearson correlation coefficient demonstrated strong significant correlations (r = 0.05) between the pollutants in the wastewater effluent and in the dam, and across the dam sampling points. The study, therefore, recommended that there should be a continuous assessment of the wastewater effluent from the Mmabatho WWTW in order to establish whether it conforms to the DWA wastewater effluent quality standards, so as to protect the quality of the surface water resource that serves as a disposal basin and in tum, mitigates the health issues arising from poor surface water quality. Masters

MSc (Environmental Science), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2018 "Abstract not copied" Masters

PhD (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2018 South Africa is a semi - arid country and most parts of the country, including the study area, are dry due to water scarcity. This situation has adversely affected food security, social and economic development of Vryburg District. During the short rainy season that occurs from October to March, ephemeral ponds form in many places. This pond water is not beneficially utilized and is lost through evaporation and infiltration. The main objective of this study was, therefore, to determine the suitability of the pond water for irrigation. Goggle Earth was used to identify all ponds in the study area. This was followed by the use of the phase file to map the distribution of the ponds. It was found that the distribution of ponds depended on rainfall intensity, soil characteristics and the nature of the underlying rock. Five ponds were selected for study from 22 originally considered. The criteria used to select the 22 ponds were: proximity to major road, longevity and size of the pond(> 2ha). ASTER 30-m resolution digital elevation system model (DEM) data were used to extract slope length and height of each selected pond. The DEM was also used to demarcate the catchment area of each selected pond. Furthermore, remote sensing was used to display LULC of the individual pond in the sub catchment from 2004 - 2013 . The main land cover classes were woody plants, grass, bare area, built-up area and water. There was an increase in the area covered by woody plants. This was attributed to bush encroachment. Over-grazing was believed to be the reason for reduction of grass cover to create bare areas. Increase in the area covered by water was due to seasonal and daily variability in rainfall. Finally, there was an increase in the size of the built-up area which could be attributed to construction and migration of people to urban areas. In addition, the relationship between LULC and water quality was investigated. Water samples were collected from the 5 ponds and chemical and biological contaminants were analysed. All the chemical data were within the recommended range specified by DW AF and FAO (Na+40.5mg/l, K+ 3.16mg/l, N03- 0.45mg/l, Cd 0.03mg/L) except for cadmium. Escherichia coli counts were below the recommended value set by WHO (78 counts/I 00 ml). The results were combined with land cover change to run multi-linear regression equations to determine the effect of LULC on water quality of pond water. When the R 2value was O. 89, grass as well as bare area had no effect on nitrate concentration in the pond water. Similarly, (p

MSc (Environmental Science), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2015 In arid and semi-arid environments like most parts of South Africa, the state of vegetation cover is an important indicator of the state of the environment. Climate variability coupled with different anthropogenic activities could affect vegetation cover at varying levels. This study aimed at assessing the pattern and magnitude of spatial and temporal vegetation cover changes before and after heavy rains in the Vhembe and Mopani Districts, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Utilising remote sensing methodology, Landsat TM images of 1995, 1997, 2005, 2007, 2010 and OLI-8 2013. Rainfall data for 1961-2011 were used to compute rainfall anomalies. Landsat classification of NDVI density classes for each image was computed for identifying vegetation cover changes. Classification of vegetation density based on NDVI categorised five major classes: non-vegetation (bare land or water), low density, medium density, high density and very high density classes. In addition, a correlation coefficient of heavy rainfall events and vegetation cover was done. The study established that there have been substantial changes in vegetation densities before and after heavy rainfall has occurred in the area. The study area received above normal rainfall in 1996, 2006 and 2011. Performing vegetation cover change analysis for the above normal rainfall years’, Vhembe and Mopani Districts showed similar patterns in vegetation cover change. This means that when vegetation cover increased in Vhembe District it also increased in Mopani District, though to a different degree. The change analysis showed an increase of 59.45 ha (5504.6%) for Vhembe and 0.81ha (90%) for Mopani in non-vegetation cover from 1995-1997 while, high and very high density decreased. Although some areas recorded a decrease in vegetation cover, there are also areas that had had an increase in vegetation during the study period. Results of the correlation coefficient revealed a significant weak correlation of (r = 0.44 and 0.18) in 1996, (r = 0.13 and 0.29) in 2006 and (r = 0.04 and – 0.36) in 2011 in Vhembe and Mopani Districts respectively, between NDVI and Mean Average Rainfall (MAR) with a residual of 19.4% (r² = 0.19), 1.7% (r² = 0.002) and 0.2 % (r² = 0.13) in Vhembe District during 1996, 2006 and 2010 respectively. Similarly, Mopani District accounted for 3.2 % (r² = 0.03), 5.3 % (r² = 0.05) and 15.2 % (r² = 0.15) in 1996, 2006 and 2011 respectively, suggesting that other factors influence vegetation cover changes in the study area. Hence, vegetation density cover change could be attributed to socio-economic activities, such as agriculture, veld fires, settlement expansions, and overgrazing. Land cover mapping and change detection studies are valuable especially for vegetation cover change. From the findings, the study recommended monitoring and analysing Land Use Land Cover Changes (LULCC) in order to understand drivers of the change in the Vhembe and Mopani District. These studies will make significant contribution towards the understanding of socio-economic drivers of vegetation cover change, and the impact on natural and human ecosystems. Masters

MSc (Environmental Science), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2014 In arid and semi-arid environments like most of South Africa, the state of vegetation density in catchments is an important indicator of the state of the environment, particularly because vegetation influences water availability by encouraging groundwater recharge. Because of the scarcity of water and consequent limits in abundance of vegetation in healthy green condition, in addition to climatic pressure, vegetation density in semi-arid environments are under human use pressure. The upper Molopo river catchment area (UMRCA) in the North West Province of South Africa is under this combined human use and rainfall pressure. This study aimed at assessing long-term changes in vegetation density in the upper Molopo river catchment area, resulting from anthropogenic and rainfall pressures. Four Landsat images were utilized in analyzing the vegetation density change. For purposes of interpreting the changes identified, ancillary long-term data on anthropogenic factors (human population, number of houses, household use of wood as energy source, livestock populations) and rainfall were obtained from state sources. Vegetation density on the images was enhanced using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The training data was then used for supervised maximum likelihood classification of the images into separate LULC as well as vegetation density (low, medium, high) maps for each elate. Assessment of accuracy indicated high classification accuracy of over 80%. The errors in classification were mainly clue to spectral signature confusion for the LULC classes. Change detection was then performed using the post-classification comparisons technique. Results indicated a growth in built up area from 3% in 1989 to 16% in 2013. The main indication of disturbance to .the vegetation was a sustained decline in medium vegetation density and its replacement by low vegetation density, particularly within 5km of human settlements. Hence, the study concluded that anthropogenic factors were the main cause of the decline in vegetation density in the UMRCA. Rainfall showed a cyclical pattern, with low seasonal rains (and high, negative Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) values in the mid-1980s and positive SPI values thereafter, indicating that in the image period of analysis had wet conditions in general. Differences in rainfall prior to image date accounted for most of the inter-date variation in the vegetated LULC classes as well as water bodies. Long-term rainfall pattern did not have direct impact in the decline of medium vegetation density class in the UMRCA. However, there was a statistically significant negative correlation between human population and area of cover by medium vegetation density (r =-0.960, P < 0.01), implying that as human population increases, the medium vegetation density declines in area of cover. The decline in medium vegetation density in the Upper Molopo River Catchment is of ecological concern. There is a need for short term and long term strategies to ensure sustainable land management in the catchment area, and in order to preserve vegetation density and biodiversity in their natural state. Masters

Thesis (M.Sc.(Environmental Science) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2012 On a per capita basis, cement is the second most widely consumed product in the world and its demand is increasing globally due to population growth and urbanisation. Manufacturing plants produce cement kiln dust (CKD) as one of the by-products while coal provides the dominant energy source in the manufacturing process. Various meta ls are found in CKD and some of these are micro nutrients with potentially toxic effects. If these are present in large quantities, they pose a direct threat to vegetation, animals and humans. The aim o f this study was to quantify a selected number of trace metal concentrations in vegetation, soil , dust and water samples near a cement manufacturing pl ant in the North West Province. Thirty-one samples at various distances from approximately 500m to 2700m from where the cement factory is situated, were collected. In addition, similar samples (except for water) were taken from a control site situated 72 kilometres in a north-western direction from the factory. The water control sample was collected from the Ditsobotla municipal water supply. Soil. plant and dust samples as well as the sediment from the water sample were acid digested to obtain total metal concentrations . The acid digested samples were analyzed for selected metal concentrations using the ICP-MS. The relationship between soil metal concentrations and particle size distribution as well as the relationship between dust concentrations and Ca concentrations was established to determine the link with the presence on a CMP in the area. The control samples, reference standards and results from similar research performed were used to compare with metal concentrations found in this study. The study revealed that Ni and Cu concentrations are higher in the silt fraction of the soil whilst V, Co, Zn and Pb in the silt fraction are only marginally higher than the complete soil sample. Only Cr and Mn concentrations were higher in soil samples than the control and reference values, while metal concentrations for Cr, Cu, Pb and Mn were higher in the dust samples than the control and the Emission Limit Value (EL V). Moreover, metal concentrations in the vegetation samples are not a concern as the concentrations a re lower than reference values. Cadmium and As levels are of no concern in this study area especially since dust samples had undetectably low levels. The condition of the environment m relation to pollution from the cement factory was established. Although some metals revealed lower concentrations, the study demonstrated the potential of metal contamination particularly Ni, Mn and Cr to the environment vis-a vis on the surrounding vegetation, animals and possibly on humans. It was therefore recommended that ELV limits for South Africa should be established and monitored for cement factories in South Africa coupled with sustainable land management policies. Masters

MSc (Environmental Science), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2012 The Wonderfonteinspruit (WFS) catchment is home to thousands of people, amongst them a significant number of informal settlement inhabitants, which largely rely on the Wonderfonteinspruit for domestic consumption on a daily basis or during water scarce periods. This research was aimed at: establishing the water sources and uses, the water quality and consequently the health risks arising from consumption of the water. Another aim was to investigate the challenges associated with accessing potable drinking water, and the effectiveness of the implementation of the water institution in South Africa with special reference to this catchment. Using questionnaires administered to communities, mines and the municipalities, data was gathered on the drinking water sources, from which water samples were collected and analyzed for heavy metals (As, Cd, Pb, Zn, Cd) and radionuclides (U isotopes) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) in the dry and wet seasons. In addition, the radiological absorbed dose and risk quotients for the various contaminants were computed using the contaminant concentrations. Research in the area has shown that there are radionuclides and heavy metals trapped in sediments of the Wonderfonteinspruit River. The findings revealed that there is significant usage of river water from the WFS for domestic consumption, either as an alternative or a main water source especially in the informal settlements. The quality of water from this river is not in compliance with the SANS 241 and WHO 2011 drinking water standards for As and U, thus statistically significant associations were observed between the concentrations of these contaminants in water and the occurrence of skin lesions and kidney inflammation respectively. As such, informal settlements of Carletonville, Bekkersdal and Khutsong are at potential risk of serious health problems as a result of their usage of the WFS for domestic consumption. A review of contemporary literature and government publications revealed that the poor implementation of the water institution could be attributed to non-collaboration between the various stakeholders. This study developed useful indices which can be used to measure community perception and a model for integrated waste and water resources management. Findings from this study are thus pertinent as they provide a baseline from which further epidemiological studies can be undertaken. Furthermore, these findings also have serious policy implications and could then be used in advancing water resources management in South Africa. Masters

Thesis (M. Sc (Geography) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2012 Over 18 years after the democratic government took power in South Africa, environmental changes relevant to the land reform policies are taking place because of unintended consequences of land reform policy. This study aimed at investigating the effects of the South African land reform policy on land use and land cover change on a land restitution project in Makotopong, Limpopo province, South Africa. The study used remote sensing techniques through the analysis of Landsat TM images acquired in 1994 and 2007 to produce landscape maps and derive land cover change. Statistics deriving the nature of the decline in the general condition of the land restitution project gave an insight into the kind of landscape transformation that has taken place before and after land restitution program. Quantification of land cover classes have shown a decline in post-transfer activities with a decline in agricultural productivity, as illustrated by the decline in area covered by agricultural crops (showing a decline from 78.03 ha in 1994 to 20.43 ha in 2007). The study recommends that spatial data analysis through remote sensing procedures should form the information base in monitoring and evaluating the land reform projects. Results of this study demonstrated that quantification of the changes in land use and land cover types can be very useful in deriving the nature of the general environmental and social condition of the land reform project. Masters

Thesis (M.Sc.(Environmental Science) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2012 The purpose of this study was to determine the hydrological impacts of land use/land cover (LULC) change in the Harts River catchment from 1990 to 2010 using an integration of remote sensing, Geographic Information System and statistical methods. Hydrological data of rainfall and river discharge were statistically analysed to reveal the changes and trends from 1990 to 2010. Changes in year-to-year relationships between precipitation and discharge suggested that discharge was relatively higher in the second half than in the first half of the study period. In fact, a weak correlation of 0.39 was found between precipitation and river discharge. The positive trend in discharge in the Harts River coincided with major changes in land cover over the study area. The LULC changes showed a decrease of vegetation cover from 758345 ha in 1990 to 736879ha in 2008, while barren land increased from 226670 ha in 1990 to 324322 ha in 2008 (an increase of 97652 ha). The coupIing of surface observations, remote sensing, and statistical analysis demonstrated the impact of changes in LULC on peak river discharge and hence flooding behaviour on the Harts River catchment. Masters