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Proteases are produced and released in the mucosal cells of the respiratory tract and have important physiological functions, for example, maintaining airway humidification to allow proper gas exchange. The infectious mechanism of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), takes advantage of host proteases in two ways: to change the spatial conformation of the spike (S) protein via endoproteolysis (e.g., transmembrane serine protease type 2 (TMPRSS2)) and as a target to anchor to epithelial cells (e.g., angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)). This infectious process leads to an imbalance in the mucosa between the release and action of proteases versus regulation by anti-proteases, which contributes to the exacerbation of the inflammatory and prothrombotic response in COVID-19. In this article, we describe the most important proteases that are affected in COVID-19, and how their overactivation affects the three main physiological systems in which they participate: the complement system and the kinin–kallikrein system (KKS), which both form part of the contact system of innate immunity, and the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS). We aim to elucidate the pathophysiological bases of COVID-19 in the context of the imbalance between the action of proteases and anti-proteases to understand the mechanism of aprotinin action (a panprotease inhibitor). In a second-part review, titled "Aprotinin (II): Inhalational Administration for the Treatment of COVID-19 and Other Viral Conditions", we explain in depth the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and use of aprotinin as an antiviral drug. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aprotinin is a broad-spectrum inhibitor of human proteases that has been approved for the treatment of bleeding in single coronary artery bypass surgery because of its potent antifibrinolytic actions. Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, there was an urgent need to find new antiviral drugs. Aprotinin is a good candidate for therapeutic repositioning as a broad-spectrum antiviral drug and for treating the symptomatic processes that characterise viral respiratory diseases, including COVID-19. This is due to its strong pharmacological ability to inhibit a plethora of host proteases used by respiratory viruses in their infective mechanisms. The proteases allow the cleavage and conformational change of proteins that make up their viral capsid, and thus enable them to anchor themselves by recognition of their target in the epithelial cell. In addition, the activation of these proteases initiates the inflammatory process that triggers the infection. The attraction of the drug is not only its pharmacodynamic characteristics but also the possibility of administration by the inhalation route, avoiding unwanted systemic effects. This, together with the low cost of treatment (≈2 Euro/dose), makes it a good candidate to reach countries with lower economic means. In this article, we will discuss the pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, and toxicological characteristics of aprotinin administered by the inhalation route; analyse the main advances in our knowledge of this medication; and the future directions that should be taken in research in order to reposition this medication in therapeutics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: SARS‐CoV‐2 virus requires host proteases to cleave its spike protein to bind to its ACE2 target through a two‐step furin‐mediated entry mechanism. Aprotinin is a broad‐spectrum protease inhibitor that has been employed as antiviral drug for other human respiratory viruses. Also, it has important anti‐inflammatory properties for inhibiting the innate immunity contact system. Methods: This was a multicentre, double‐blind, randomized trial performed in four Spanish hospitals comparing standard treatment versus standard treatment + aprotinin for patients with COVID‐19 between 20 May 2020 and 20 October 2021. The primary efficacy outcomes were length of hospital stay and ICU admission. The secondary endpoints were each of the primary efficacy outcomes and a composite of oxygen therapy, analytical parameters and death. Safety outcomes included adverse reactions to treatment during a 30‐day follow‐up period. Treatment was given for 11 days or till discharge. Results: With almost identical analytical profiles, significant differences were observed in treatment time, which was 2 days lower in the aprotinin group (p =.002), and length of hospital admission, which was 5 days shorter in the aprotinin group (p =.003). The incidence of discharge was 2.19 times higher (HR: 2.188 [1.182–4.047]) in the aprotinin group than in the placebo group (p =.013). In addition, the aprotinin‐treated group required less oxygen therapy and had no adverse reactions or side effects. Conclusion: Inhaled aprotinin may improve standard treatment and clinical outcomes in hospitalized patients with COVID‐19, resulting in a shorter treatment time and hospitalization compared with the placebo group. The administration of aprotinin was safe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Altered synaptic transmission with excess glutamate release has been implicated in the loss of motoneurons occurring in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Hyperexcitability or hypoexcitability of motoneurons from mice carrying the ALS mutation SOD1G93A (mSOD1) has also been reported. Here we have investigated the excitability, the ion currents, and the kinetics of the exocytotic fusion pore in chromaffin cells from postnatal day 90 to postnatal day 130 mSOD1 mice, when motor deficits are already established. With respect to wild-type (WT), mSOD1 chromaffin cells had a decrease in the following parameters: 95% in spontaneous action potentials, 70% in nicotinic current for acetylcholine (ACh), 35% in Na+ current, 40% in Ca2+ -dependent K+ current, and 53% in voltage-dependent K+ current. Ca2+ current was increased by 37%, but the ACh-evoked elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ was unchanged. Single exocytotic spike events triggered by ACh had the following differences (mSOD1 vs. WT): 36% lower rise rate, 60% higher decay time, 51% higher half-width, 13% lower amplitude, and 61% higher quantal size. The expression of the α3-subtype of nicotinic receptors and proteins of the exocytotic machinery was unchanged in the brain and adrenal medulla of mSOD1, with respect to WT mice. A slower fusion pore opening, expansion, and closure are likely linked to the pronounced reduction in cell excitability and in the ion currents driving action potentials in mSOD1, compared with WT chromaffin cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the "non-autonomous motor neuron death" hypothesis has become more consolidated behind amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It postulates that cells other than motor neurons participate in the pathology. In fact, the involvement of the autonomic nervous system is fundamental since patients die of sudden death when they become unable to compensate for cardiorespiratory arrest. Mitochondria are thought to play a fundamental role in the physiopathology of ALS, as they are compromised in multiple ALS models in different cell types, and it also occurs in other neurodegenerative diseases. Our study aimed to uncover mitochondrial alterations in the sympathoadrenal system of a mouse model of ALS, from a structural, bioenergetic and functional perspective during disease instauration. We studied the adrenal chromaffin cell from mutant SOD1G93A mouse at pre-symptomatic and symptomatic stages. The mitochondrial accumulation of the mutated SOD1G93A protein and the down-regulation of optic atrophy protein-1 (OPA1) provoke mitochondrial ultrastructure alterations prior to the onset of clinical symptoms. These changes affect mitochondrial fusion dynamics, triggering mitochondrial maturation impairment and cristae swelling, with increased size of cristae junctions. The functional consequences are a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and changes in the bioenergetics profile, with reduced maximal respiration and spare respiratory capacity of mitochondria, as well as enhanced production of reactive oxygen species. This study identifies mitochondrial dynamics regulator OPA1 as an interesting therapeutic target in ALS. Additionally, our findings in the adrenal medulla gland from presymptomatic stages highlight the relevance of sympathetic impairment in this disease. Specifically, we show new SOD1G93A toxicity pathways affecting cellular energy metabolism in non-motor neurons, which offer a possible link between cell specific metabolic phenotype and the progression of ALS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resveratrol (RESV) is one of the most abundant polyphenol-stilbene compounds found in red wine with well-established cardioprotective and antihypertensive effects. Hyperactivity of the sympathoadrenal axis seems to be one of the major contributing factors in the pathogenesis of human essential hypertension. Alterations in outward voltage-dependent potassium currents (I K ) and inward voltage-dependent sodium (I Na ), calcium (I Ca ) and nicotinic (I ACh ) currents, CCs excitability, Ca 2+ homeostasis, and catecholamine exocytosis were previously related to the hypertensive state. This raised the issue of whether in vivo long-term RESV treatment can directly act as a modulator of Ca 2+ influx or a regulator of ion channel permeability in CCs. We monitored outward and inward currents, and cytosolic Ca 2+ concentrations ([Ca 2+ ] c ) using different pharmacological approaches in CCs from normotensive (WKY) and hypertensive (SHR) animals chronically exposed to trans-RESV (50 mg/L/v.o, 28 days). The long-term RESV treatment prevented the increase of the systolic blood pressure (SBP) in SHR, without reversion of cardiac hypertrophy. We also found an increase of the outward I K , reduction in inward I Na, I Ca , and I ACh , and the mitigation of [Ca 2+ ] c overload in CCs from SHR at the end of RESV treatment. Our data revealed that electrophysiological alterations of the CCs and in its Ca 2+ homeostasis are potential new targets related to the antihypertensive effects of long-term RESV treatment., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Chronic ethanol (EtOH) consumption has been associated with deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system by abnormal calcium (Ca2+) handling. Store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) is related to cardiovascular remodeling which leads to the hypertension development, and the coupling between STIM-1 (ER Ca2+ sensor) and Orai-1 (channel pore) is a key mechanism to control SOCE through of store-operated Ca2+ channels (SOCCs). However, the role of STIM-1/Orai-1-mediated SOCE and its cross-talk with EtOH-triggered vascular remodeling and hypertension remain poorly understood. We address this subject in the present study by evaluating how chronic EtOH consumption induces alterations in Ca2+ handling via SOCE., Methods: Male Wistar Kyoto (WKY) and Spontaneously Hypertensive (SHR) rats were subjected to the intake of increasing EtOH concentrations (5-20%, for 30 days). Systolic blood pressure (SBP) and EtOH concentration were measured; cardiovascular remodeling was assessed by histomorphometry; and function/ expression of STIM-1/Orai-1-mediated Ca2+ influx were evaluated by isometric contraction and western blot experiments., Results: Compared to the WKY-Control, our results show that: (1) chronic EtOH consumption caused a significant elevation of SBP in both strains; (2) cardiac hypertrophy and hypertrophic aortic wall remodeling much more pronounced in WKY-EtOH; (3) decreased capacity of ER to store and release Ca2+; (4) increased STIM-1/Orai-1-mediated SOCCs activation, which was selectively inhibited by YM-58483; and (5) increased expression of STIM-1 in WKY-EtOH and SHR-Control rats., Conclusion: These findings suggest that hypertrophic aortic remodeling and abnormal contraction triggered mainly by Ca2+ overload via STIM-1/Orai-1-mediated SOCE through SOCCs are involved hypertension developed by EtOH consumption., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.org.)

Here we review the contribution of the various subtypes of voltage-activated calcium channels (VACCs) to the regulation of catecholamine release from chromaffin cells (CCs) at early life. Patch-clamp recording of inward currents through VACCs has revealed the expression of high-threshold VACCs (high-VACCs) of the L, N, and PQ subtypes in rat embryo CCs and ovine embryo CCs. Low-threshold VACC (low-VACC) currents (T-type) have also been recorded in rat embryo CCs and rat neonatal slices of adrenal medullae. Near full blockade by nifedipine and nimodipine of the K(+)-elicited secretion as well as the hypoxia induced secretion (HIS) supports the dominant role of L-VACC subtypes to the regulation of exocytosis at early life. Partial blockade by ω-conotoxin GVIA and ω-agatoxin IVA suggests a transient participation of N and PQ high-VACCs to the regulation of the HIS response at early stages of CC exposure to hypoxia. T-type low-VACC current did not elicit exocytosis triggered by electrical depolarising pulses applied to rat embryo CCs in one study, but largely contributed to the HIS response in neonatal rat adrenal slices in another. In spite of scarce available data, the sequence of events driving the HIS response in CCs at early life could be established as follows: (i) hypoxia blocks one or more K(+) channels; (ii) as a consequence, mild membrane depolarisation occurs; (iii) T-type low-VACCs open at membrane potentials more hyperpolarised than those required to recruit the high-VACCs; (iv) firing of action potentials then occurs; (v) fast-inactivating N and PQ high-VACCs transiently open and low-inactivating L high-VACCs remain open along the hypoxia stimulus; (vi) increase of cytosolic Ca(2+) takes place; and (vii) the exocytotic release of catecholamine occurs in two phases, an explosive initial phase, driven by Ca(2+) entry through L, N and PQ channels, followed by a more sustained catecholamine release at a slower rate driven by L-type channels.

Altered synaptic transmission with excess glutamate release has been implicated in the loss of motoneurons occurring in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Hyperexcitability or hypoexcitability of motoneurons from mice carrying the ALS mutation SOD1(G93A) (mSOD1) has also been reported. Here we have investigated the excitability, the ion currents, and the kinetics of the exocytotic fusion pore in chromaffin cells from postnatal day 90 to postnatal day 130 mSOD1 mice, when motor deficits are already established. With respect to wild-type (WT), mSOD1 chromaffin cells had a decrease in the following parameters: 95% in spontaneous action potentials, 70% in nicotinic current for acetylcholine (ACh), 35% in Na(+) current, 40% in Ca(2+)-dependent K(+) current, and 53% in voltage-dependent K(+) current. Ca(2+) current was increased by 37%, but the ACh-evoked elevation of cytosolic Ca(2+) was unchanged. Single exocytotic spike events triggered by ACh had the following differences (mSOD1 vs. WT): 36% lower rise rate, 60% higher decay time, 51% higher half-width, 13% lower amplitude, and 61% higher quantal size. The expression of the α3-subtype of nicotinic receptors and proteins of the exocytotic machinery was unchanged in the brain and adrenal medulla of mSOD1, with respect to WT mice. A slower fusion pore opening, expansion, and closure are likely linked to the pronounced reduction in cell excitability and in the ion currents driving action potentials in mSOD1, compared with WT chromaffin cells., (Copyright © 2015 the American Physiological Society.)

At early life, the adrenal chromaffin cells respond with a catecholamine surge under hypoxic conditions. This response depends on Ca(2+) entry through voltage-activated calcium channels (VACCs). We have investigated here three unresolved questions that concern this response in rat embryo chromaffin cells (ECCs): 1) the relative contribution of L (α1D, Cav1.3), N (α1B, Cav2.2), and PQ (α1A, Cav2.1) to the whole cell Ca(2+) current (ICa); 2) the relative contribution of L and N/PQ channels to the cytosolic Ca(2+) elevations triggered by hypoxia (Δ[Ca(2+)]c); and 3) the role of L and non-L high-VACCs in the regulation of the catecholamine surge occurring during prolonged (1 min) hypoxia exposure of ECCs. Nimodipine halved peak ICa and blocked 60% the total Ca(2+) entry during a 50-ms depolarizing pulse to 0 mV (QCa). Combined ω-agatoxin IVA plus ω-conotoxin GVIA (Aga/GVIA) blocked 30% of both ICa peak and QCa. This relative proportion of L- and non-L VACCs was corroborated by Western blot that indicated 55, 23, and 25% relative expression of L, N, and PQ VACCs. Exposure of ECCs to hypoxia elicited a mild but sustained Δ[Ca(2+)]c; the area of Δ[Ca(2+)]c was blocked 50% by nifedipine and 10% by Aga/GVIA. Exposure of ECCs to 1-min hypoxia elicited an initial transient burst of amperometric secretory spikes followed by scattered spikes along the time of cell exposure to hypoxia. This bulk response was blocked 85% by nimodipine and 35% by Aga/GVIA. Histograms on secretory spike frequency vs. time indicated a faster initial inactivation when Ca(2+) entry took place through N/PQ channels; more sustained secretion but at a lower rate was associated to Ca(2+) entry through L channels. The results suggest that the HIS response may initially be controlled by L and P/Q channels, but later on, N/PQ channels inactivate and the delayed HIS response is maintained at lower rate by slow-inactivating L channels., (Copyright © 2014 the American Physiological Society.)

The activity of the plasmalemmal Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX) is highly sensitive to temperature. We took advantage of this fact to explore here the effects of the NCX blocker KB-R7943 (KBR) at 22 and 37°C on the kinetics of Ca(2+) currents (ICa), cytosolic Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)]c) transients, and catecholamine release from bovine chromaffin cells (BCCs) stimulated with high K(+), caffeine, or histamine. At 22°C, the effects of KBR on those parameters were meager or nil. However, at 37°C whereby the NCX is moving Ca(2+) at a rate fivefold higher than at 22°C, various of the effects of KBR were pronounced, namely: 1) no effects on ICa; 2) reduction of the [Ca(2+)]c transient amplitude and slowing down of its rate of clearance; 3) blockade of the K(+)-elicited quantal release of catecholamine; 4) blockade of burst catecholamine release elicited by K(+); 5) no effect on catecholamine release elicited by short K(+) pulses (1-2 s) and blockade of the responses produced by longer K(+) pulses (3-5 s); and 6) potentiation of secretion elicited by histamine or caffeine. Furthermore, the more selective NCX blocker SEA0400 also potentiated the secretory responses to caffeine. The results suggest that at physiological temperature the NCX substantially contributes to shaping the kinetics of [Ca(2+)]c transients and the exocytotic responses elicited by Ca(2+) entry through Ca(2+) channels as well as by Ca(2+) release from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Since the first generation of MAO inhibitors was developed, more than fifty years ago, this family of drugs has been ups and downs over the last decades. Actually, interest in MAO inhibitors is reviving and the emergence of new advances in the rational design of molecules and new techniques to predict the in vivo behavior has encouraged the research for new drugs with therapeutic potential in this area. The classic MAOIs have been widely used as antidepressants during the two decades after its introduction in clinic. Based on observations made on MAO inhibition by these drugs, it has been postulated hypothesis that have contributed to a better understanding of the mechanism and management of depressive disorders. However, exaggerated concerns about food and drug interactions relegated these drugs from the pharmaceutical landscape. The correct interpretation and the contextualization of side effects and the recent research findings, in which MAO selective inhibitors appear as promising agents in the treatment of emerging and high prevalence diseases, are placing these drugs again into the scientific and pharmacological focus.

The serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) 2A receptor is a cell surface class A G protein-coupled receptor that regulates a multitude of physiological functions of the body and is a target for antipsychotic drugs. Here we found by means of fluorescence resonance energy transfer and immunoprecipitation studies that the 5-HT(2A)-receptor homodimerized in live cells, which we linked with its antagonist-dependent fingerprint in both binding and receptor signaling. Some antagonists, like the atypical antipsychotics clozapine and risperidone, differentiate themselves from others, like the typical antipsychotic haloperidol, antagonizing these 5-HT(2A) receptor-mediated functions in a pathway-specific manner, explained here by a new model of multiple active interconvertible conformations at dimeric receptors.