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(1) Background: The COVID-19 pandemic severely disrupted global trade, posing challenges for regional trade agreements such as the Pacific Alliance, comprising Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. This study investigates the Pacific Alliance's impact on trade creation and diversion during the pandemic, exploring how regional cooperation mitigated trade disruptions. (2) Methods: A quantitative approach utilizing econometric models, including ordinary least squares, Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood, and the Heckman selection model, was employed. The gravity model of trade was applied to bilateral trade data from 1948 to 2021, incorporating COVID-19-specific variables to assess trade dynamics. (3) Results: The analysis revealed significant trade creation within the Pacific Alliance during the pandemic, with intra-bloc trade strengthening despite global disruptions. However, evidence of trade diversion from non-member countries was mixed and inconclusive. (4) Conclusions: The Pacific Alliance demonstrated resilience during the COVID-19 period, fostering regional trade creation and cushioning the impact of global trade shocks. While trade diversion remains uncertain, the study highlights the critical role of regional trade agreements in stabilizing trade flows during global crises, offering valuable insights for future policy and regional cooperation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tax capacity exercised by subnational governments in a country is fundamental in shaping the tax and economic system, especially when there is a coordination of interests, such as in the Pacific Alliance. Therefore, the coordination exercised by its member countries – Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru – must be strategically aligned to comprehensively strengthen this Alliance. Considering the above, the objective of this study is to identify the similarities or differences between these four countries, check the tax behaviors of their subnational governments, and assess the degree of their impact on this trade agreement. Based on a longitudinal quantitative methodology, the results reveal significant differences between the subnational collection systems, identifying that Mexico and Peru are the only members that have maintained a similar trend, significantly differentiating themselves from Chile and Colombia. Despite their subnational tax structures, the main finding is that the Pacific Alliance needs to implement more coordinated actions in tax matters to strengthen its economic activities with other countries. A lack of coordination could counteract the commercial and financial strategies presented as a regional bloc, impacting investment, competitiveness, and regional sustainability. Overall, coordinated tax policies within the Pacific Alliance can drive regional integration, contributing to the region’s long-term stability.

Objective/context: The proliferation in the number, depth, and scope of e-commerce agreements has integrated shared agendas and memberships within Latin America’s complex regional governance, making cooperation and fragmentation non-exclusive practices. Therefore, this article asks about the conditions that have facilitated or limited the development of a Latin American digital market. Methodology: A comparative qualitative analysis of the Pacific Alliance, the Andean Community, and Mercosur, together with process tracing, will shed light on their progress in this area, taking into account the degree of linkage they maintain with three mechanisms that foster collaboration and coordination dynamics among various institutions an d actors. Conclusions: The analysis shows that, within systems characterized by growing institutional density and diversity—such as the Latin American e-commerce environment—regional cooperation can be facilitated when regional trade agreements are embedded in a broader trade regime, where there is a clear sequencing among different agreements, and when orchestrators and policy networks are present. In contrast, their absence leads to ineffective agreement implementation and increased regional fragmentation. Originality: This work connects studies on complex regional governance with a relatively underexplored agenda in Latin American academic literature: e-commerce.

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The objective of this article is to analyze the process of institutionalization of Intellectual Property (IP) in the Pacific Alliance (PA) from its origin in 2011 to 2020. This organization is made up of four countries: Colombia, Chile, Mexico and Peru. The theoretical foundation is located in the theory of neo-institutionalism, which grounds the analysis of isomorphism and institutional immersion regarding international agreements and political factions within the economic bloc. The question of this work is: What kinds of isomorphism and institutional immersion prevail in the IP documents assumed by the countries of the PA from 2011 to 2020? Two groups of documents were analyzed: the first group is made up of the documents that constitute the regulatory framework of IP in the international context, and the second group is made up of the documents that have been approved by the PA in this field. In the international context, seventeen treaties on intellectual property are analyzed under the scheme of the three types of isomorphism: coercive, mimetic and normative. Since its foundation, the PA has signed 27 documents related to intellectual property, which are distributed in the three types of isomorphism, where eight belong to the mimetic, seven coercive, ten normative and two mimetic and normative. Another concept that is analyzed is that of institutional immersion; under this scheme, seventeen documents signed by the Pacific Alliance are reviewed, where thirteen seek to promote cooperation, and five are mandated. It was found that mimicry maintains a strong influence in international intellectual property agreements; this is the result of institutional weakness; weak institutions seek to imitate the most successful ones, but it is also a consequence of tendencies to promote international cooperation. The continuation of this work should be aimed at explaining the influence of the institutionalization of intellectual property on the innovation indicators of the PA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this article is to analyze the process of institutionalization of Intellectual Property (IP) in the Pacific Alliance (PA) from its origin in 2011 to 2020. This organization is made up of four countries: Colombia, Chile, Mexico and Peru. The theoretical foundation is located in the theory of neo-institutionalism, which grounds the analysis of isomorphism and institutional immersion regarding international agreements and political factions within the economic bloc. The question of this work is: What kinds of isomorphism and institutional immersion prevail in the IP documents assumed by the countries of the PA from 2011 to 2020? Two groups of documents were analyzed: the first group is made up of the documents that constitute the regulatory framework of IP in the international context, and the second group is made up of the documents that have been approved by the PA in this field. In the international context, seventeen treaties on intellectual property are analyzed under the scheme of the three types of isomorphism: coercive, mimetic and normative. Since its foundation, the PA has signed 27 documents related to intellectual property, which are distributed in the three types of isomorphism, where eight belong to the mimetic, seven coercive, ten normative and two mimetic and normative. Another concept that is analyzed is that of institutional immersion; under this scheme, seventeen documents signed by the Pacific Alliance are reviewed, where thirteen seek to promote cooperation, and five are mandated. It was found that mimicry maintains a strong influence in international intellectual property agreements; this is the result of institutional weakness; weak institutions seek to imitate the most successful ones, but it is also a consequence of tendencies to promote international cooperation. The continuation of this work should be aimed at explaining the influence of the institutionalization of intellectual property on the innovation indicators of the PA.

(1) Background: The COVID-19 pandemic severely disrupted global trade, posing challenges for regional trade agreements such as the Pacific Alliance, comprising Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. This study investigates the Pacific Alliance’s impact on trade creation and diversion during the pandemic, exploring how regional cooperation mitigated trade disruptions. (2) Methods: A quantitative approach utilizing econometric models, including ordinary least squares, Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood, and the Heckman selection model, was employed. The gravity model of trade was applied to bilateral trade data from 1948 to 2021, incorporating COVID-19-specific variables to assess trade dynamics. (3) Results: The analysis revealed significant trade creation within the Pacific Alliance during the pandemic, with intra-bloc trade strengthening despite global disruptions. However, evidence of trade diversion from non-member countries was mixed and inconclusive. (4) Conclusions: The Pacific Alliance demonstrated resilience during the COVID-19 period, fostering regional trade creation and cushioning the impact of global trade shocks. While trade diversion remains uncertain, the study highlights the critical role of regional trade agreements in stabilizing trade flows during global crises, offering valuable insights for future policy and regional cooperation strategies.

Colombia has a long tradition of participating in regional integration initiatives, as a full or associate member. The Pacific Alliance (PA) is one of the most recent integration projects in which Colombia participates. This article explores, from the perspective of neoclassical realism (NCR), the role played by the perception of foreign policy decision-makers, both in the systemic and regional context, and how these perceptions were assumed as opportunities or threats that defined Colombia's entry into this integrationist initiative. It employs a qualitative methodology through documentary analysis of scientific and journalistic sources. It concludes that the perception of the external context played an important role in Colombia's decision to become a founding member of the Pacific Alliance, and that the intervening variable of the decision-makers perception becomes valuable in contexts where the formulation of foreign policy falls largely on the presidential figure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The legal declarations on functional foods of the four main economic integration organizations in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) – Pacific Alliance (PA), Caribbean Community (CARICOM), Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) and Central American Integration System (SICA) - are based on the Codex Alimentarius system and do not regulate functional foods. The use of Codex in food marketing is an insufficient condition for its application in functional foods. Regulation based on scientific and technology results are required to be used in the economic integration organizations of LAC. Objective. The objective is to analyze the theoretical framework of the legal foundations that could govern the commercialization processes of functional foods, whose research advances have currently only been manifested in nutritional health. This article also seeks to address this gap through a systematic analysis of international regulations. Materials and methods. For this, a review of the literature emanating from two databases from 2018-2023 is carried by applying the legal-economic research method of documentary content analysis, applied to three general food marketing regulations: food safety declarations, regulations for inspections, food manufacturing and food labeling. Results. The results reveal the absence of specific legislation for functional foods in LAC economic integration organizations. Conclusions. The legal principle of marketing based on peremptory norm (also called jus cogens) can be facilitated through side letters, included in the contents of international contracts. along with the registration requirements of industrial property rights of the member countries associations.

The article examines the political potential of Latin American countries in bolstering their influence within the Indo-Pacific region (IP). It delves into the Indo-Pacific concept, championed internationally by India and Japan, as an alternative viewpoint in contrast to the predominant orientation towards China as the regional leader in the Asia-Pacific region. Carlos Exudé's "Peripheral Realism" provides the theoretical framework for the study, although Latin American states strive to move beyond their peripheral status.The focus is on four Pacific coastal countries in Latin America: Colombia, Mexico, Peru, and Chile. It identifies key areas of cooperation between these nations and major players in the IP such as India, Japan, South Korea, and Australia. Chile and Peru have established a more robust transpacific partnership compared to their neighbors. However, Mexico possesses a significant advantage due to its unique geographical position intersecting the Atlantic and Pacific routes.Colombia, along with Mexico, Chile, and Peru, formed the Pacific Alliance, an integration association that emphasizes closer ties with Asian countries. Over its decade-long existence, this Alliance has significantly increased in both economic and political significance. The article highlights the pivotal role of this alliance in fostering Asian-Latin American trade and entrepreneurship.The study also delves into the prospects of integrating the two regions by extending the reach of Pacific economic megablocks (Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, Trans-Pacific Partnership) to Latin America. After the ratification of the TPP by Mexico, Peru, and Chile, an agreement that unites all four Pacific Ocean continents for the first time emerged. The advent of the RCEP, which includes powerful economies such as China, South Korea, and Japan, demonstrates a clear global shift from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from West to East. The inclusion of Latin American countries in these processes is poised to advance their regional and global interests on the international stage.

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Purpose: The purpose of the article is to present the results of the analysis of the Covid 19 pandemic on digital commerce in the Pacific Alliance – PA- during the first 12 months. Methodology: The study is characterized as a descriptive qualitative study, where 9 specialists were interviewed. Later, their perceptions were tabulated and processed using Nvivo software, and these findings are presented in word clouds. Findings: Different digital buying and selling transactions depend on internet access and logistic coverage, revealing that rural areas face more significant restrictions. Additionally, the influence of commercial companies during the purchase process was observed, using digital tools to enhance product knowledge and optimize transactions with strategic allies such as Amazon, Mercado Libre, and Facebook, ranked in accordance with consumer awareness levels. Practical implications: E-COMMERCE during the first year had a rapid development driven by the limitations imposed to stop the advance of the pandemic. Originality/value: the study provides first-hand verification of the current situation of e-commerce in the AP, from the point of view of marketing experts.

Microplastics, capable of absorbing persistent organic compounds, heavy metals, and emerging pollutants, are of global concern due to their potential to alter the behavior and metabolism of biota. In Latin America, the Pacific Alliance, comprising Mexico, Colombia, Peru, and Chile, stands out for its biological wealth and productive ecosystems, which account for 37% of the region’s gross domestic product. The leaders of these countries expressed their concern about microplastic pollution and pledged to take joint action. We conducted an analysis of the scientific production of these countries and the collaborations of their researchers, focused on the period 2015–2023, using Scopus and SCImago. We observed that marine-coastal/wetland ecosystems are the most studied, with a focus on fish, and that Mexico leads in publications, followed by Colombia, Peru, and Chile. In addition, we note the absence of an inter-institutional group dedicated to microplastics research in these countries. We recommend promoting collaboration between academic institutions specialized in microplastic research and government agencies dedicated to the promotion of science and technology in the countries belonging to the Pacific Alliance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The port-city of Buenaventura (in the Colombian Pacific coast) is at the center of national and international geopolitical interest as “the capital of the Pacific Alliance”, a US$ 3 trillion trade bloc formed by Mexico, Chile, Colombia and Peru to advance regional integration and cross-pacific trade. At the same time, the city is also known for extraordinary levels of gruesome violence, dismembered dead bodies that now and then appear floating in the low-tide area of port-expansion being its most visible aspect. In this article, we ask: How is racial terror tied to such a promising future for capitalist development? How can we theorize the dynamics of capital’s flow, economic expansion and global integration in this Fanonian zone of nonbeing? To answer these questions, we first analyze the colonial geography of this predominantly Black port-city as well as its place in the geographic imaginary of Colombia. Then, in dialogue with literature on multiple dimensions of racial capitalism and structural antiblackness such as racialized surplus populations and social death, we analyze some spatial dynamics that dialectically produce Buenaventura simultaneously as a dystopic and a value-producing spatiality that repositions Colombia in the global economy. Finally, borrowing from Rhonda Williams’ analysis of racialized dispossession as “accumulation-as-evisceration,” we provide some reflection on the racially-driven eviscerating politics of capital- making in this port-city as it relates to current global geopolitics as well as to lasting antiblack injustices in Colombia and beyond.

Copyright of Brazilian Journal of Law & International Relations / Relações Internacionais no Mundo is the property of Relacoes Internacionais no Mundo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of RAN - Revista Academia & Negocios is the property of RAN - Revista Academia & Negocios, Universidad de Concepcion and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Introduction: This article addresses the legal regulations for Foods for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU) in the main trade associations of Latin America (LATAM), based on the Codex Alimentarius system. Objective: The objective is to determine regulatory progress in the trade of FOSHU products. Material and methods: This study includes a review of the literature emanating from the databases from 2018 to 2022, according to the framework of three general food marketing regulations: food safety claims; inspection regulations, and food manufacturing and labeling. Results: The results reveal the absence of a specific legislation for FOSHU foods, as these are only mentioned in the area of nutrition. Conclusions: The legal framework in the trade of these products is based on jus cogens. Registration of industrial patents in the main member countries of LATAM trade associations can be facilitated through the Patent Prosecution Highway (PPH).

The objectives of this research were: (1) to examine the influence of environmental awareness (EA), sustainable consumption (SC) and social responsibility (SR) on the environmentally responsible purchase intention (ERPI) of consumers in the member countries of the Pacific Alliance, namely, Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru; and (2) to analyze whether there is a moderating effect related to the country of residence and gender of the consumer. The study was conducted under a quantitative and cross-sectional approach. The sample consisted of 1646 consumers: 24.4% from Peru (n = 402), 25.4% from Mexico (n = 418), 26.1% from Colombia (n = 401) and 24.1% from Chile (n = 397). Data analysis and hypothesis testing were performed using a multigroup Structural Equation Model (SEM). The results show a positive influence among environmental awareness (EA), sustainable consumption (SC) and social responsibility (SR) on environmentally responsible purchase intention (ERPI). Gender and country of residence were also shown to be moderating variables in these relationships. In conclusion, it can be affirmed that the participants of this study recognize the importance of acquiring environmentally friendly products. Among them, the female population is more aware of this issue. It is recommended new business models be created to provide products and services oriented to this market according to consumers' tastes, desires and purchasing preferences; the proposals they have should be friendly to the environment and to society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Latin American Policy is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Latin American Policy is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Latin American Policy is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Latin American Policy is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Latin American Policy is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Copyright of Tendencias: Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Administrativas is the property of Universidad de Narino, Facultad de Ciencias Economics y Administrativas and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Objective/Context: This article examines regional cooperation from the perspective of literature on networking and diffusion literature aiming to explain how the Pacific Alliance’s trade institutions were formed in the period 2010-2019. Additionally, it analyses why, within this process, the bloc has been losing dynamism. Methodology: The qualitative analysis of four case studies is interlinked with process tracking to emphasize the connections and interactions between the actors identified in the decision-making process. Conclusions: The analysis reveals that the identification of shared principles between transnational and trans-government networks and political actors has facilitated the decision-making process whenever there have been pre-negotiation agreements that articulate their interests and harmonize their differences. This process shows that the institutional design adopted by the Pacific Alliance is the result of disseminating multiple regional references, in which the networks facilitated the transfer of knowledge to a regional organization. Originality: The article shows that it is possible to overcome the state-centric vision of regional cooperation and explains that regionalism does not emerge in isolation from other regional references.

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This article presents a comparative study of media policies in Chile and Mexico as members of the Pacific Alliance agreement, using media clientelism as an articulating concept, assuming that it takes a particular form in the neoliberal countries of the continent. For this, five dimensions are compared: a) decrees and the implementation of laws; b) distribution and allocation of broadcasting licenses; c) anti-concentration measures; d) official advertising expenditure and e) governance public media. The results suggest that the institutional structures and inertia that became entrenched under the Chilean dictatorship still perpetuate a clientelistic relationship between the political system and media owners, which is reflected in the government's media policies. In Mexico, despite the progress made in the institutional regulatory design and implementation of media policies, these remain in a state of tension between clientelist practices and liberal democratic design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The Pacific Alliance is an economic and development initiative where four Latin American nations: Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, seek the growth in the economics of the four nations. It is in this way that agriculture plays an important role in this union since it is one of the greatest sources of income in each nation. However, the internal conflict that afflicts each country generates stagnation in economic growth, affecting its exports. Forced displacement is one of the main consequences of the internal conflict within the countries that make up the Pacific Alliance. Therefore, a model of Population Dynamics System P (PDP System) is proposed, viewing this phenomenon as a classic predator-prey model, where one ‘predator’ resources that in this case are the territories, and in this struggle one species predominates over the other. The simulations showed how the populations are being affected and how the analogy between the social conflict described above and the Lokta-Volterra model can be modelled with a topic that has always been considered to be social. Although much more complex scenarios can be simulated by adding other variables, this study is an approach that yields important results that can be considered in other studies

This paper sets out the objective of formulating mechanisms that promote free competition in the mobile telephony market in the member countries of the Pacific Alliance (Mexico, Colombia, Chile and Peru). This proposal is based on the principles of regional governance to start from the criteria of a political-legal order to generate more significant degrees of socioeconomic integration and commercial transparency. The research was exploratory with hermeneutical reasoning within the framework of the documentary review, analyzing the main concepts and benefits represented by the adoption of better conditions of free competition and regional governance. The main results express a proposal focused on the consolidation of an inter-parliamentary commission for commercial monitoring that gives greater recognition to the integration agreements of the presidential summits, through sector studies and democratic participation protocols that benefit all the players in the mobile phone market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of open regionalism in Latin American was characterized by emphasizing trade liberalization in order to improve the region's insertion in a globalized world economy by simultaneously reducing barriers to intra-regional trade and the rest of the world. In this sense, trade facilitation measures play a preponderant role as instruments that materialize the possible advances that regional integration agreements can advance in customs and commercial matters, as is the case of Mercosur and the Pacific Alliance (AP), two of the trade blocs that group the main Latin American economies which, in April 2017, agreed on a roadmap for their convergence in trade facilitation actions, an area in which the foreign trade single windows (VUCE) have a center role. This research reviews the advances in this matter in the countries who are members in both models of regional integration and concludes that it is imperative that the governments and the private sector grouped in the PA and Mercosur, prioritize the trade facilitation and customs cooperation agenda, including in it credible and secure governance mechanisms with verifiable access to large foreign markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article examines how the Pacific Alliance constitutes a multilevel state project to lock-in neoliberal reforms in each member country. Using a strategic relational approach to institutions that emphasizes the interconnection between institutional and social dynamics, it demonstrates that the AP is a state project that is both a regional market access strategy and a domestic disciplinary mechanism. Notably, it represents an attempt to reinforce the neoliberal economic export models that predominate in each member country: Chile, Mexico, Peru, and Colombia. Buttressed by dominant domestic and transnational social forces in each country, technocrats in each member countries seek to reproduce institutional strategies of depoliticization that were successfully employed in their countries at a regional level in the AP in view of growing political instability and discontentment with neoliberalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the socioeconomic factors that influence the disclosure of sustainability information on 99 local government websites in 2018 in countries that make up the Pacific Alliance (PA) in Latin America, associated with internal and external demands that public entities have for accountability in social and environmental issues. We use as methodology a content analysis of the sustainability information disclosed by local entities on their websites and a regression of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). This article shows empirical evidence that the size, budget capacity and the economic level of the municipality are factors associated with the sustainability disclosure on websites, due to internal and external factors impacting the decisions and actions taken by the entities related to the sustainability and its disclosure. These results are important for academic and technical discussions in a region with specific characteristics, different from most of the countries studied in previous literature on the subject.

Potential GDP measures the sustained growth that an economy can achieve in the long term through the efficient use of production factors. In particular, if we analyze the potential GDP of the countries of the Pacific Alliance bloc (Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru), these have been moderating in recent years, associated with structural factors such as the stagnation in gains in competitiveness and productivity , and cyclical factors that are influenced to a certain extent by economic imbalances.Added to this, the expansion of COVID-19 worldwide would further exacerbate the deterioration of the potential GDP growth of the countries of the Pacific Alliance in 2020. In this sense, the objective of this research is to estimate the potential GDP through the production function methodology, which will allow us to analyze the dynamics of potential growth through its components i) capital stock, ii) labor force, and iii ) total factor productivity.