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In a greenhouse experiment, plant growth and copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) uptake by four Salix cultivars grown in Cu and Zn contaminated soils collected from a mining area in Finland were test...

Poland has considerable agro-biomass potential that could pave the way toward sustainable development and achieve the country's renewable energy targets by substituting the excessive use of fossil fuels, particularly coal and lignite. To develop biomass cost supply curves, biomass recourse assessment is required and socio-economic factors and environmental constraints must be considered. Surplus biomass potential is the proportion of biomass that can be used for energy generation and economic development with minimum risk. Two provinces were selected in this study to estimate forest and agricultural biomass resources. In central Poland, Kujawsko-Pomorskie province was selected due to the high density of renewable energy installations there, while Upper Silesia in the south of the country was selected because of its large coal deposits and higher forest cover. We used GIS applications, secondary data from official sources, and data from a field survey with 210 farmers to produce land use and GIS maps for surplus forest and agricultural biomass. Surplus residues from all crops in Upper Silesia and in Kujawsko-Pomorskie were estimated at 0.60 t/ha over a 12-month period. These figures correspond to approximately 57,000 and 178,000 t/year in both provinces, respectively. These maps are a useful tool in optimizing the locations of future investments in biomass-based power plants in the study regions.

In the past few decades, several studies have been conducted about the effects of stump harvesting on forests. Extensive stump harvesting began in Finland in 2000 for bioenergy purposes. Today, however, there are several ongoing discussions on producing energy from tree stump harvesting. Hence, the present study aimed to investigate people's knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes about stump harvesting by conducting a questionnaire survey during Silva fair in North Karelia in Finland. The results of the study indicated that 70% of the respondents showed quite good knowledge about stump harvesting. Respondents with high knowledge had critical perceptions and attitudes concerning stump harvesting. The study indicated that respondents supported stump harvesting only for forest management or site preparation, not for revenue. There were significant differences between forest owners and non-owners, between respondents with forestry backgrounds and non-forestry backgrounds, and between males and females regarding revenue. Respondents with high knowledge agreed that stump harvesting is good for forest management but not for biodiversity. Respondents had positive attitudes towards learning more about stump harvesting and using fuel from stumps. The study indicated that although people have some negative perceptions and attitudes towards stump harvesting, on the whole, they accept it as part of their future bioenergy sources. We deem that the results of our study will accelerate bioenergy policy makers’ interests.

In a greenhouse experiment, plant growth and copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) uptake by four

Salix schwerinii was tested in a pot experiment to assess plant growth performance i.e., relative height and dry biomass and the potential for heavy metal uptake in soils polluted with chromium, zinc, copper, nickel and total petroleum hydrocarbons. The soil used in the pot experiment was collected from a landfill area in Finland. Peat soil was added at different quantities to the polluted soil to stimulate plant growth. The plants were irrigated with tap water or processed water (municipal waste water) to further investigate the effects of nutrient loading on plant biomass growth. The soil was treated at two pH levels (4 and 6). The results showed that the addition of 40–70% peat soil at pH 6 to a polluted soil, and irrigation with processed water accelerated plant growth and phytoextraction efficiency. In the pot experiment, Salix grown in chromium, zinc, copper, nickel and total petroleum hydrocarbons -contaminated field soil for 141 days were unaffected by the contaminated soil and took up excess nutrients from the soil and water. Total mean chromium concentration in the plant organs ranged from 17.05 to 250.45 mg kg −1 , mean zinc concentration ranged from 142.32 to 1616.59 mg kg −1 , mean copper concentration ranged from 12.11 to 223.74 mg kg −1 and mean nickel concentration ranged from 10.11 to 75.90 mg kg −1 . Mean chromium concentration in the plant organs ranged from 46 to 94%, mean zinc concentration ranged from 44 to 76%, mean copper concentration ranged from 19 to 54% and mean nickel concentration ranged from 8 to 21% across all treatments. Under the different treatments, chromium was taken up by Salix in the largest quantities, followed by zinc, copper and nickel respectively. Salix also produced a moderate reduction in total petroleum total petroleum hydrocarbons in the polluted soil. The results from the pot experiment suggest that Salix schwerinii has the potential to accumulate significant amounts of chromium, zinc, copper and nickel. However, long term research is needed to verify the phytoextraction abilities of Salix observed in the pot experiment.

The objective of this survey-based study was to investigate farmers’ willingness to supply biomass for power generation in the south and in the centre of Poland. In total, 210 farmers participated in this study by filling in a self-instructed questionnaire. The results indicate that the majority of farmers (two-thirds) in both regions appeared unwilling to collect, store and transport biomass to the market or to the energy production facility. It is likely that an unstable biomass market marked by low demand and low prices has led to unwillingness by farmers to engage in bioenergy production in Poland. Increasing the role of biomass as a renewable energy resource and recovering the farmers’ confidence in the market would require fixing the shortcomings in the biomass market and the provision of clear public policies that aim at long-term market stability.

The present study tested the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) model in explaining high school students' intentions to use bioenergy in Finland and India. Data were collected from 402 Finnish and 130 Indian students studying in the ninth and tenth grades in nine schools. Structural Equation Modeling was applied to test the TPB model. The results revealed that the construct ‘Attitude’ had the strongest and statistically significant positive effect on the students' intentions to use bioenergy in a cross-cultural setting and also within the Finnish context. The other constructs such as ‘Subjective Norm’ (SN) showed the second most positive effect on intention, whereas ‘Perceived Behavioral Control’ (PBC) had a negligible effect on ‘Intention’. However, SN was the only construct that had the strongest and statistically significant positive impact on the Indian students' intentions to use bioenergy. The results indicated the applicability of the TPB model in explaining students' intentions to use bioenergy in a cross-cultural context. Future studies could use an extended TPB model by including additional socio-psychological and contextual variables in explaining young students' renewable energy-related behavioral intentions.

Farmers’ perceptions and values are a fundamental part of a polycentric approach aimed at improving the financial feasibility of biomass-based enterprises. In this survey-based study, 210 farmers from central (Torun province) and southern (Upper Silesia region) Poland completed a self- instructed questionnaire dealing with their perceptions of the challenges currently facing the biomass market and their willingness to change from traditional farming to feedstock production for energy generation. The results indicate that only 12% of the farmers are willing to switch to biocrop cultivation. Moreover, selected socio-economic and demographic variables (gender, age) had an impact on their willingness to adopt energy crops. All the presented challenges appeared to be of high relevance to the farmers who participated in this study. However, farmers from Torun province attributed substantial relevance to the social transformation in the agriculture sector, and to the lack of seasonal workers. In the Upper Silesia region, the lack of a well-established biomass market was of greatest relevance. A cross-tabulation method revealed statistical differences between the perceived value of farming and the farmers’ perceptions toward the challenges facing the biomass market. These findings are insightful for policies that aim to address the shortcomings in current biomass market development in Poland.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of lime and bisphosphonates (BPs) such as N10O chelate amendment on the growth, physiological and biochemical parameters, and phytoextraction potential of the willow variety Klara (Salix viminalis × S. schwerinii × S. dasyclados) grown in soils heavily contaminated with copper (Cu), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn). The plants were irrigated with tap or processed water (mine wastewater). The results suggest that the combined effects of the contaminated soil and processed water inhibited growth parameters, gas exchange parameters and chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) values. In contrast, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, organic acids, total phenolic and total flavonoid contents, and the accumulation of metals/metalloids in the plant tissues were increased compared to the control. When the soil was supplemented with lime and N10O; growth, physiological, biochemical parameters, and resistance capacity were significantly higher compared to unamended soil treatments, especially in the contaminated soil treatments. The combined lime‒ and N10O‒amended soil treatment produced higher growth rates, resistance capacity, photosynthesis rates and phytoextraction efficiency levels relative to either the lime‒amended or the N10O‒amended soil treatments. This study provides practical evidence of the efficient chelate‒assisted phytoextraction capability of Klara and highlights its potential as a viable and inexpensive novel approach for in situ remediation of Cu‒, Ni‒ and Zn‒contaminated soils and mine wastewaters.

The role of school teachers is crucial for promoting energy and environmental education in schools, and also instilling pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors among young students. However, studies are limited when it comes to analyzing teachers' perceptions and attitudes (PAs) related to the renewable energy technologies such as bioenergy from a cross-national perspective. The present study analyzed science teachers' PAs related to bioenergy based on data collected from schools in Finland and India. The sample size consisted of 50 science teachers from 10 high schools in these two countries. The study found that the majority of the science teachers had positive PAs regarding bioenergy in both of the countries. However, their willingness to pay more for using bioenergy did not appear to be very positive. In general, the positive PAs related to bioenergy among the science teachers should be encouraging for the educators and policy makers who are aiming to introduce renewable energy education in ...

Utilization of renewable energy resources is imperative due to energy access, energy security, and energy sustainability coupled with the rising environmental concern. India is one of the largest land mass countries in the world and amply bestowed with biomass resources. Investigations on biomass supply potential, socio-economic challenges, local people attitudes, current bioenergy markets, and technologies are prerequisite while seeking to develop sustainable energy plants. The study aimed to assess expert attitudes on wood-based energy development in India. This assessment was based on the opinions of Indian Forest Service (IFS) officers who are involved in managing wood-based biomass resources in different parts of the country. The study gave emphasis to the advantages, problems, and directions of the biomass based energy development in the country. The results showed that the development of biomass-based energy plants involves a number of challenges both locally and nationally. In addition, the study also highlighted the possible benefits of developing biomass based energy plants at local and national levels. The outcomes of this study provide useful information to the policy decision makers, energy entrepreneurs, and other stakeholders in the development of biomass based energy in India.

International audience; In 2007, the European Union (EU) set goals to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, called H2020 targets, by 2020. Following the adoption and implementation of policies related to these targets, this study surveyed 187 experts from 25 EU countries to analyse their perceptions regarding the achievement of the H2020 targets. The experts' countries are grouped in five geographical regions: Central European countries (CEC), Western European countries (WEC), South-Eastern European countries (SEEC), Nordic countries (NC), and East European countries (EEC). The survey results demonstrate a broad scepticism among those interviewed: 49% perceive that the renewable energy (RE) target will not be accomplished, 60% perceive that the EU's GHG emission policies are not sufficient to fulfil the GHG reduction target, and 85% state that the EU's energy efficiency will not succeed. The regional comparison reveals that an overwhelming majority (82–93%) from SEEC, NC, and EEC feel that consistent and sufficient incentives are necessary to meet the RE targets for biomass. Contrary to the majority opinion among WEC experts, the majority from all other regions perceive that the EU GHG policies are insufficient and that the H2020 targets will not be achieved.

Understanding public knowledge, attitude, and perception towards energy and environmental issues is indispensible for achieving renewable energy targets. The main objective of this study is to investigate the level of knowledge and perception of renewables (especially biomass fuels) among rural households, and to analyze commonly held beliefs on environmental issues related to the development of bioenergy resources. A multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was applied in selecting 240 households from four upazilas of Bangladesh. Door to door questionnaire survey was carried out for this study. The results revealed that the majority of rural households had a high level of knowledge on traditional biomass fuels such as wood fuel, crop residues and cow dung. However, they possessed a relatively low level of knowledge regarding improved biomass fuels such as briquette, biogas and biodiesel. The analysis showed that the household’s socio-economic status and their level of education plays a significant role in the promotion of knowledge on various renewable and adoption on renewable energy technologies. The rural households expressed negative perceptions towards sustainability aspects of current biomass fuel consumption. Perceptions of various interventions which may have influence on promotion of knowledge on renewables and promotion of sustainable use of bioenergy resource were discussed. The results of this study provide noteworthy information on renewable energy dynamics, which is useful in the development of microplans for forestry and energy sectors at a regional or national level.

Producing energy wood from private forests in Croatia and Serbia is a challenging issue considering the present poor state of private forests in these countries. Private forests in these countries are highly fragmented in small plots with low productivity and owned by a large number of small-scale private forest owners (PFOs) who show lack of interests in managing their forests. The study conducted surveys among 232 PFOs in these two countries to find out their perceptions and attitudes related to energy wood production. The other objective of the study was to provide policy recommendations to the public authorities and professionals in these countries for improving the pre-conditions for energy wood mobilization from private forests. The study found that the PFOs perceived the issues such as underdeveloped market and low price for energy wood, absence of energy wood related policies, fragmented private forest areas, older PFOs’ lack of interests in energy wood production, and difficulties in getting bank loan for energy wood related business activities as barriers against energy wood production from private forests in a commercial way. However, the PFOs were quite positive in their atttiudes towards producing energy wood from their forests and they considered the possibilities of creating new jobs and commercial opportunities as strengths of energy wood production. The dimensions of the PFOs’ perceptions and attitudes related to energy wood production showed two key dimensions – institutionalists and enthusiasts. The variables to explain the PFOs’ attitudes to energy wood production were different between the two countries and they indicated the differences in the country level circumstances for energy wood production. The results appeared to be relevant for understanding the key issues that the PFOs perceived as barriers against developing a functioning energy wood market in their countries. When private forestry related institutions in these countries are emerging, the existing public forestry institutions need to play an important role for improving the preconditions for mobilizing energy wood from private forests.

A country level spatially explicit mixed integer linear programming model has been applied to identify the optimal Fischer Tropsch biodiesel production plants locations in Finland. The optimal plant locations with least cost options are identified by minimizing the complete costs of the supply chain with respect to feedstock supply (energywood, pulpwood, sawmill residuals, wood imports), industrial competition (pulp mill, sawmill, combined heat and power plants, pellet industries) and energy demand (biodiesel, heat, biofuel import). Model results show that five biodiesel production plants of 390 MW feedstock are needed to be built to meet the 2020 renewable energy target in transport (25.2 PJ). Given current market conditions, the Fischer Tropsch biodiesel can be produced at a cost around 18 €/GJ including by-products income. Furthermore, the parameter sensitivity analysis shows that the production plant parameters such as investment costs and conversion efficiency are found to have profound influence on the biodiesel cost, and then followed by feedstock cost and plant size. In addition, the variations in feedstock costs and industrial competition determine the proportion of feedstock resource allocation to the production plants. The results of this study could help decision makers to strategically locate the FT-biodiesel production plants in Finland.

Successful energy planning requires substituting the standard economic model with a more transparent public participatory model because people play a fundamental role in climate change mitigation and renewable energy (RE) deployment. This approach requires improving communication with society and enabling smooth delivery of easy to digest information to citizens in both formal and informal educational settings. In this context, education and teachers, as the principal components, are recognized as one mechanism. We conducted a survey-based study, collecting 260 questionnaires from secondary school teachers in Jordan aiming to investigate their knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes toward RE development. The main findings of this study revealed that teachers have limited knowledge of RE and neutral perceptions regarding its use. However, teachers showed clear positive attitudes toward RE development. Overall, male teachers exhibited slightly higher knowledge of RE and female teachers held stronger positive attitudes. A number of socio-demographic and work related factors did not influence the teachers' knowledge and attitudes toward RE. It was also found that teachers require personal training regarding RE before it is introduced into school curricula.

Elevating public knowledge and awareness is positively correlated to public support to renewable energy (RE) development and elicit support to achieve measures to reduce energy consumption at the domestic level. Since information about particular issue might be obtained from various sources and according to students’ preferences, therefore, the main objective of this study is to explore the role of social interactions, mass media, and school profile on youth knowledge and awareness. In this vein, we conducted a survey-based study during which we collected 617 responses from 16-year old school students from two contrasting geographical regions in Jordan. The study found noteworthy differences in responses between gender, place of residence, and school type variables. Interestingly, parents scored the highest mean value and thus perceived as the most important source of information for the students. A Principle Component Analysis revealed three dimensions with statistical differences among the study variables. The internet is found to be a preferable source to obtain information in future and for all the respondents. However, females and private-mixed schools seem to also prefer TV and school activities to obtain information in future while males preferred school teachers and parents. The policy implications of this study imply devising proper outreach and energy saving campaigns targeting parents through mass media and community-based initiative. The education authorities are encouraged to develop and implement energy saving campaign at the public schools and finding room for introducing RE related issues within the domain of school curricula and school activities.

WOS: 000319106300002, Development of modern bioenergy sector is an important step toward meeting societal demand for reducing CO2 emissions and supplying eco-friendly energy. Young students are the future decision-makers and they will play an important role toward transforming the present fossil fuel driven society into a renewable energy based society. The study aimed to explain young students' intentions to use bioenergy by considering their knowledge perceptions, and attitudes related to bioenergy in Finland, Taiwan, Turkey, and Slovakia. Data for this study came from a previous survey in these countries among 15-year-old 1903 school students. This study with the help of Principal Component Analysis revealed the dimensions of the students' perceptions of and attitudes related to bioenergy. One of the dimensions pro-environmental intention was used as the dependent variable in the Multiple Regression Analyses. Results indicated that students' intentions to use bioenergy were mostly guided by their perceptions of the socio-environmental aspects related to bioenergy. Individual level decision-making such as communicating and learning more about bioenergy was also important; however, with a low impact value. Results also suggested that the criticalenvironmental dimension had only minor influence on the students' intentions to use bioenergy. Students' level of bioenergy-knowledge especially those with a relatively higher level appeared to have a strong impact on their intentions to use bioenergy. Young students should be facilitated to become aware of bioenergy in order to influence their intentions to use it in the future., OKKA-saatio Foundation (Helsinki, Finland), The Authors are thankful to the two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions, which helped to improve the manuscript. In addition, the authors acknowledge all the survey respondents, the schools and the municipal authorities in each country for their cooperation. Finally, yet importantly, the authors acknowledge the generous funding support by the OKKA-saatio Foundation (Helsinki, Finland).

Modern bioenergy technologies have been recognized as one of the potential energy sources in Nepal to address the current energy crisis and contribute to the rural development. Nepalese foresters play an important role in the natural resource management sector of Nepal. Their perceptions can be important considering their experiences in the forestry sector and awareness of the local situations especially in the remote and rural areas of Nepal. Therefore, the study through a questionnaire-based survey aimed to explore their perceptions of bioenergy development in Nepal including the policy issues. Total 65 Nepalese foresters were interviewed for the study working for various forestry related government organizations located in Kathmandu, Nepal. The study found that the Nepalese foresters perceived positively the importance of bioenergy development in Nepal for employment and rural income generation, and improving the current energy situation by supplying locally produced and affordable energy sources. The respondents held community participation in the future bioenergy projects as a key to its successful implementation in Nepal. However, there is a strong need, as perceived by the respondents, to formulate a separate bioenergy policy for Nepal. Among various policy interventions formulation of a new bioenergy policy, mobilizing community participation in bioenergy projects, developing bioenergy markets, and implementing new bioenergy projects were considered as urgent for Nepal.

Our cross-national study examined the views of forestry students from Brazil, China and Finland on the highly debated issue of forestry education. Altogether, views from 584 Bachelor students from three programmes in the three countries were collected. Students' perceptions of importance of subject-specific and generic competencies and experiences, preferred area of work, and willingness to do a Master's degree were asked through a questionnaire in the respective national language. Quantitative analyses included comparisons across universities and study years, as well as influence of gender, grades, and satisfaction. Great similarities across the countries regarding the students' views on subject-specific competencies and experiences, as well as on the preferred areas of work were found. The students highly valued field experiences as well as areas such as environmental protection. Upon graduation a majority wished to work in the management of public forests, followed by industries in the case of Brazil and Finland and research in the case of China. Changes across the study years, such as the increasing importance given to oral and writing skills by students of later years, were observed. These and other results and their implications are discussed in consideration of cultural, curricular and institutional factors.

Short rotation coppice (SRC) willow are established conventionally by inserting cuttings vertically into the soil, but their ability to reproduce vegetative has also been demonstrated by planting cuttings horizontally. There is a lack of knowledge about the biomass production, root characteristic, and nutrient leaching of plantations established through horizontally planted cuttings. A plot experiment was conducted to compare the soil solution chemistry and the growth of stem and roots of willow cuttings ( Salix schwerinii ) with vertical or horizontal planting orientation at two planting densities (corresponding to 7500 and 22,500 cuttings ha −1 ). The horizontally planted cuttings achieved the same stem yields (4.08 t ha −1 ) as the vertically planted cuttings (4.86 t ha −1 ). The stem biomass was doubled to a planting density of 22,500 cuttings ha −1 (6.34 t ha −1 ) compared to at 7500 cuttings ha −1 (3.36 t ha −1 ). The effect of planting orientation or density had no effect on the root biomass or production. Willows decreased the conductivity, (NO 2 +NO 3 )–N and the dissolved total N in the soil solution compared with unplanted plots, but the influence was not detected systematically at each sampling depth or in each year. The differences in soil water concentrations between planting treatments remained small. In conclusion, we have shown that both planting orientation methods, horizontal and vertical, can be used for preventing nutrient leaching and maximizing biomass production. It will also be interesting to expand the application of horizontally planted willow materials in order to stabilize slops, control erosion and reclaim contaminated sites.

The aim of this survey study is to investigate the level of awareness and prevailing attitudes of schoolstudents toward renewable energy (RE) in a country which is heavily reliant on fossil fuels despite having high RE resources. The importance of this study stems from the need to better understand the role of education in cultivating awareness of RE, which is necessary for the students to become future responsible energy consumers. To that end, we developed a suitable questionnaire. In total, 617 respondents from both rural and urban areas filled in the questionnaire. Our results indicate that students have limited ability to distinguish renewable from non-renewable energy sources despite many respondents being aquatinted with the common RE sources like solar and wind. Furthermore, over 50% of students are unaware of biofuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol. Nevertheless, 87% of students consider RE to be a viable future energy option, and generally exhibit a positive attitude and willingness to adopt RE even at high prices. Overall, young females appear to be more acquainted with RE than young males. Likewise, students studying in urban areas are more aware of RE and more strongly support their adoption, in comparison to rural students, who show a preference for nuclear energy. This study highlights the importance of implementing RE education as early as possible to encourage RE development, which is necessary to alleviate the risk from fossil fuel-related environmental problems.

The use of wood in building construction in China dates back millennia. In recent decades with rapid industrialization and shortage of timber, the use of wood as a building material has substantially decreased. Since 2000, though, a certain revival of wooden houses has occurred, especially in the most developed cities. Nevertheless, both the number of wooden houses and the awareness of the potential of using wood in housing remain low. The present study aimed at better understanding the perceptions of Chinese experts on wooden house. The study analyzed the needs and the potential for the construction of wooden houses in China, training and education capacity and requirements, and the implications for sustainable forest management. The semi-structured questionnaire method was chosen to explore the experts’ views on specific issues and more general aspects. The experts perceived a low level of public awareness on the use or purchasing of wooden houses. This and other results and their implications are discussed in consideration of the ambitious national policies, including the pursuit of a low-carbon economy. Knowledge and information dissemination, education dealing with forest resources, wooden construction know-how, and the properties and benefits of wooden housing need to be promoted at different levels to improve the acceptance of wood framed houses in China.

This study examines forest bioenergy related knowledge, perceptions, attitudes, and behavior amongst participants of national forestry training course in China. The participants are forestry professionals and are senior government officials in this area on a county level; additionally all have been working in the forestry field for more than ten years. Their perceptions and practices are worth examing as they directly influence local and regional decision makers, and could affect the adoption of forest bioenergy in the country. The purpose of this study was able to determine how well the professionals' practices and future preferences concerning the use of forest bioenergy fit together. A thorough assessment was conducted using a questionnaire of 74 professionals in Xiamen and Hangzhou (China). The results revealed that, firstly, their environmental behavior can be classified as being a low carbon lifestyle. Secondly, the professionals think that renewable energy has potential for use in the future, but less potential for forest bioenergy. Thirdly, the professionals' practices and future preferences concerning the use of forest bioenergy do not appear coherent. Fourthly, the professionals feel that the development of forest bioenergy requires increased cooperation between the government and enterprises with respect to the different functions of the forest and its impact on the ecosystem. Finally, the findings indicate that bioenergy related education through different channels has to be improved. The findings create a foundation for further discussions regarding the use of forest as a source of renewable energy, as well as forest management in the country.

The present study examines Chinese university students’ attitudes and knowledge regarding energy, specifically towards forest bio-energy in their country. The study was based on opinions of students from Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University (NWAFU) in China and it was conducted using a questionnaire completed by 441 students. The students’ attitudes are seen as highly relevant because they are considered as both potential consumers and possible experts in the field of bio-energy. Their activities influence how the future energy markets will likely develop. The results revealed various interesting facets of the students’ views regarding energy usage. Of particular interest is the students’ positive attitude towards renewable energy in general, but slightly less positive towards forest bio-energy. However, the respondents expected to receive more information and knowledge about renewable energy and forest bio-energy. Moreover, it can be concluded that the dissemination of knowledge through different sources (e.g. teaching in school, information available on the Internet and other media channels) is an increasingly important aspect regarding energy issues. The results of this study can provide information of the perceptions of young educated people on energy policy issues and thus serve political decision-making processes for the future options concerning the development of forest bio-energy in China. Finally, the outcome of this study indicates that further environmental and energy education in China is urgently needed.

Finland considers energy production from woody biomass as an efficient energy planning strategy to increase the domestic renewable energy production in order to substitute fossil fuel consumption and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Consequently, a number of developmental activities are implemented in the country, and one of them is the installation of second generation liquid biofuel demonstration plants. In this study, two gasification-based biomass conversion technologies, methanol and combined heat and power (CHP) production, are assessed for commercialization. Spatial information on forest resources, sawmill residues, existing biomass-based industries, energy demand regions, possible plant locations, and a transport network of Eastern Finland is fed into a geographically explicit Mixed Integer Programming model to minimize the costs of the entire supply chain which includes the biomass supply, biomass and biofuel transportation, biomass conversion, energy distribution, and emissions. The model generates a solution by determining the optimal number, locations, and technology mix of bioenergy production plants. Scenarios were created with a focus on biomass and energy demand, plant characteristics, and cost variations. The model results state that the biomass supply and high energy demand are found to have a profound influence on the potential bioenergy production plant locations. The results show that methanol can be produced in Eastern Finland under current market conditions at an average cost of 0.22 €/l with heat sales (0.34 €/l without heat sales). The introduction of energy policy tools, like cost for carbon, showed a significant influence on the choice of technology and CO2 emission reductions. The results revealed that the methanol technology was preferred over the CHP technology at higher carbon dioxide cost (>145 €/tCO2). The results indicate that two methanol plants (360 MWbiomass) are needed to be built to meet the transport fuel demand of Eastern Finland.

Since 2000, the consumption of bioenergy in the European Union has grown, along with a concurrent growth in the trade of biomass for energy purposes (though traded volumes still remain small). Bioenergy production and trade will likely continue to increase into the future, driven by climate change concerns, emissions reduction targets, increasing concerns about domestic energy security and favourable policies. The harmonization of European standards and the development of certification systems are key issues to resolving potential negative effects of increased biomass trade. Certification systems not only address the issue of environmental sustainability from production to end-use, but also allow for product differentiation while adding value to sustainably produced products, which can ultimately enhance a competitive and sustainable bioenergy market. In addition to analyzing bioenergy trade growth in the European Union, a questionnaire survey of 92 bioenergy experts from eight member states within the European Union was conducted. Survey results show that bioenergy is highly accepted in the European Union but that there is a lack of European standards and policy harmonization, along with the absence of a competitive market or a certification system, all of which are necessary for sustainable production and trade of bioenergy. A large majority (63 percent) of the total respondents agreed that the certification of bioenergy is necessary to promote the sustainable use of biomass.

The development of the willow cultivation for bioenergy in the municipality of Enkoping was analysed, with special attention to the changes in the capacity and use of wood fuels of the municipality’s combined power and heat plant, during the period 1986–2005. The evolution is compared with the municipality of Orebro, in Central Sweden, a pioneer in the use of willow plantations. The study was performed including the geographical location of all the plantations and owners using a GIS platform, and a methodology based on n-sigmoidal curves was proposed to study the adoption curves of willow before and after the changes in the district heating plant. The results show significant enlargements of the area planted with willow observed after the enlargement of the plant in 1994; most of these new plantations being located within 30 km from the plant. The method applied seems to be suited to explain the effects in adoption of the power plant. Around 28% of the growers seem to be attributed to the effects of the plant. The results of this study provide empirical evidence of the effect of the district heating systems on the development and promotion of willow plantations. The methodology provided can be valuable in understanding the success or failure of the energy programmes, from the farmer’s perspective, and can aid policy makers in achieving their goals.

The present study with an international perspective, investigated the state of knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes among young students toward bioenergy in Finland, Slovakia, Taiwan, and Turkey. A total of 1,903 students with an average age of 15 years from 19 rural and urban schools participated in this study. The study found statistically significant differences in students’ bioenergy knowledge with respect to the countries. Only a small percentage of the students in each country were able to demonstrate a high level of bioenergy knowledge. In overall, the gender and rural–urban differences did not play a significant role in determining students’ level of bioenergy knowledge. The students appeared to be very critical of bioenergy and especially of the issues related to bioenergy production from forests. They demonstrated positive attitudes in terms of their willingness to learn about bioenergy and its use in their daily life. The study found statistically significant effects of gender and locality on students’ perceptions of bioenergy. Most knowledgeable students in bioenergy appeared to be most critical in their perceptions and attitudes toward bioenergy. The principal component analysis revealed three distinct dimensions of students’ perceptions and attitudes toward bioenergy viz., “motivation”, “critical”, and “practical”. A broader societal support is needed for the introduction of bioenergy in many countries and young generation’s positive attitudes to this matter is certainly important for people who will create policies in this area. More efforts are needed to support young students so that they understand the multi-dimensional issues related to bioenergy by allowing them to have practical experiences with bioenergy.

The study investigated the relationships between students’ perceived information on bio-energy from school, home and media and their perceptions, attitudes, and knowledge regarding bio-energy. The study also analyzed the scope of future policies to raise awareness among young students about bio-energy. Data drawn from 495 Finnish students studying in ninth grade revealed that the students were more positive in their attitudes towards bio-energy compared to their perceptions of it. They were very positive about learning about bio-energy, while not so eager towards its utilization. It appeared that school, home, and media all had statistically significant effects on students’ perceptions, attitudes, and level of knowledge related to bio-energy. Three principal components emerged from students’ perceptions and attitudes towards bio-energy viz. ‘motivation’ revealing students’ eagerness to know more about bio-energy; ‘considering sustainability’ revealing their criticality of forest bio-energy; and ‘utilization’ revealing their state of interests to use bio-energy. Bio-energy policies to be effective must consider the role of school, home, and media as important means to engage young students in bio-energy related discussions. It is also desirable to establish interactions between energy and educational policies to integrate the modern renewable energy concepts in the school curriculum.

The aim of this study was to assess the current situation of the forest bio-energy development in China. This assessment is based on opinions of Chinese academic experts. Key drivers and uncertainties regarding the implementation, and the strategies for the future practices in the development of forest bio-energy were investigated. In addition, the purpose of this study was also to determine whether there is a consensus among the experts concerning forest bio-energy and if this consensus agrees with policy-makers in China. A thorough assessment was conducted using a two-round Delphi survey of sixty-one bio-energy experts in China. The results revealed the advantages, potential problems, and the experts’ recommendations for the future development. Furthermore, the experts agreed that the Chinese government plays a dominant role in the development process of forest bio-energy in the country. The experts recognized that the process of developing forest bio-energy is a challenging task both domestically and globally. At the same time they also highlighted the potential benefits of developing forest bio-energy in China during the next ten years. The outcomes of this study could be used to give advice to policy-makers and to support the implementation of the future forest bio-energy policies in China.

Willow buffer strips are a promising vegetated filter for the reduction of non-point source pollution from agricultural land to watercourses resulting from the rapid growth of shoots and from the large amount and distribution of roots. A greenhouse experiment tested the hypothesis that a new planting method, planting cuttings horizontally, exhibited more biomass production and more effective filter than did planting cuttings vertically. Due to the different times taken for shoots break through the soil surface, the summed height of all shoots of horizontally planted cuttings was significantly smaller than that of the vertical ones at the beginning of the growth period. The difference in the height of all of the shoots between planting orientations decreased with time. After 16 weeks growth, the biomass of the stem, leaves and fine roots was not affected by the planting orientation. The coarse root biomass was larger in the horizontal treatments and decreased with increased density. The total biomass, as well as the biomass of stem or leaves, of each treatment, increased with increased planting density. The individual plant biomass, as well as that of the stem or leaves, decreased with increased planting density. Compared with the unplanted control treatment, the planted treatments significantly reduced the total-N, NO3-N, PO4-P and SO4-S leaching. The planting orientation did not affect the nitrate leaching. The horizontally planted cuttings were slightly more effective for reducing the SO4-S leaching and the vertically planted cuttings were slightly more effective for reducing the PO4-P leaching. Lower PO4-P leaching was observed only with higher planting density. With regard to the horizontal planting method, further studies are needed to explore the influence of different willow clones, the size of cuttings, pre-planting treatments, planting geometry (configuration) and soil conditions on survival, the number of shoots produced, the biomass production and the amount and distribution of roots.

Electrical resistances of roots and stems of hydroponically raised willows (Salix schwerinii) were studied and related to root morphology. Willow cuttings with and without roots were set in a constant electric field (effective voltage of 0.1 V, sine-AC, 128 Hz) in a hydroponic solution. The electrical resistance of different components in the measurement system was measured and analysed in relation to root surface area in contact with the cultivation solution. Axial resistivities of single root segments and of stems were measured. The results showed that the resistance decreased in relation to an increase in the contact surface area of the roots with the solution. The resistance depended strongly on the contact area of the stem with the solution, however, thus causing bias in the evaluation of root surface area. This work is a new contribution for the understanding of current pathways in the root system as exposed to an external electric field and for developing a non-destructive method to study plant roots accordingly. It may be concluded that the electrical resistance method is a useful non-destructive method to study roots and their physiological properties. Electrical analogues for roots and stem comprising resistors are discussed in relation to in situ measurements.

The aim of this study is to discuss how information about the development and use of bio-energy is forwarded and disseminated to general public via the Internet in China. Furthermore, this study also explores in what manner the information of renewable energy policies is presented. A research method used in this study is an application of content analysis. Altogether 19 energy-related web platforms were found by searching keywords, such as “energy net” or “renewable energy net” or “bio-energy net” on www.Google.cn . A thorough analysis was conducted by focusing on one of them: www.china5e.com . The news articles on www.china5e.com were examined according to whether the use of bio-energy was articulated positively or negatively in the contents of articles. It was also considered whether the articles were imported from abroad. The results of this study indicated that in China there is a tendency on the Internet to disseminate primarily the positive information about bio-energy with a great emphasis on its benefits. In addition, the study shows that when analyzing the content of the news articles, biogas and liquid bio-fuels will be the main bio-energy development trends in China in the near future.

The results of multiyear studies of gas exchange in intact attached leaves of several willow species (Salix sp.) were analyzed. Measurements were performed with a portable Li-6400 infrared gas analyzer both on plants in their natural environment and on rooted cuttings grown in a greenhouse. Individual attached leaves were placed into the leaf chamber where climatic conditions were either similar to or different from those outside the chamber. The maximal rates of net photosynthesis (P n) and transpiration (E) were only observed with the provision that the environmental variables inside and outside the chamber were identical. On rainy or cloudy days, the P n and E values observed under optimum conditions inside the leaf chamber were lower than their potential maxima by 12–18% and 35–45%, respectively. Deviation of temperature in the chamber by 5–7°C from the external level and fluctuations of ambient temperature affected P n but not E rates of tested leaves. Variations in relative air humidity in the chamber directly influenced E but had no effect on P n of attached leaves. It was shown that the maximum rates of gas exchange in the attached willow leaf could be only attained by providing optimum conditions for the whole plant.

Since 1995 the development of forest research and education has been defined more and more in the European context instead of solely on Finland basis. According to the Bologna Process in 1999, Finland committed to the joint actions to develop high forestry education through wide networking as other European countries. National Forest Programme (NTF) in 1999 by the Finnish Government aims at improving forest‐related know‐how through a strong innovation based on research, education and expansion of internationalisation and Europeanisation. However, research and development funding for forest sector decreased remarkably from 1995. Following NTF, research of many institutes including Finnish Forest Research Institute (Metla) becomes more and more customer‐oriented, that is “from the markets to the forest”. There are two forest education institutes, i.e., Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki and Faculty of Forestry, University of Joensuu. The former works for the sustainable function of ...

Nonindustrial private forest owners (NIPFs) in Finland are important stakeholders of forest management and roundwood supply decisions. Their role will also be significant to supply energy wood to meet Finland's target for renewable energy in the future. The main objectives of this study were to explore the opinions and awareness of the Finnish NIPFs related to the energy wood market and forest-based bioenergy certification issues in Finland and their relevance for future bioenergy policies. A questionnaire-based survey was conducted among the NIPFs in Finnish Karelia (N = 79). The Finnish NIPFs considered price as the key deciding factor in harvesting and selling of energy wood. The present low price of energy wood compared to pulpwood did not motivate them to increase harvesting and selling of energy wood from thier forest estates. The majority of them appeared to be unaware of the Criterion 5 under the PEFC group forest certification scheme, which provides guidance on harvesting of biomass from forests for energy production in Finland. However, they expected that forest-based bioenergy certification schemes should be easy to follow, develop energy wood market, and promote environmentally sound forest management practices in Finland. Private forest owners' associations and personal information letters emerged as the most favored means to disseminate information on forest-based bioenergy certification to the Finnish NIPFs. The study explored the opinions and awareness of the Finnish NIPFs related to energy wood market and forest-based bioenergy certification issues. The conclusions derived from the study might be highly policy-relevant concerning the development of energy wood market and related certification schemes. Future studies should include larger sample size for increasing the representativeness of the findings.

Information on plant roots is increasingly needed for understanding and managing plants under various environmental conditions, including climate change. Several methods have been developed to study fine roots but they are either destructive or cumbersome, or may not be suitable for studies of fine root functionality. Electrical impedance, resistance, and capacitance have been proposed as possible non-destructive measures for studying roots. Their use is limited by a lack of knowledge concerning the electrical circuit of the system. Electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was used for hydroponically raised willows (Salix schwerinii) to estimate the root system size. The impedance spectra were investigated in three experimental set-ups and the corresponding appropriate lumped models were formulated. The fit of the proposed lumped models with the measured impedance spectra data was good. The model parameters were correlated with the contact area of the roots and/or stems raised in the hydroponic solution. The EIS method proved a useful non-destructive method for assessing root surface area. This work may be considered to be a new methodological contribution to understanding root systems and their functions in a non-destructive manner.

The relationships between bud dormancy and frost hardiness were examined using two-year-old L. seedlings. The chilling temperatures used were +4 and -2°C. To examine the dormancy release of the seedlings, a forcing technique was used. Frost hardiness was determined by artificial freezing treatments and measurements of electrical impedance. At the start of the experiment, the frost hardiness of the seedlings was about -25°C. After the rest break, the seedlings kept at +4°C dehardened until after eight weeks their frost hardiness reached -5°C. At the lower chilling temperature (-2°C) the frost hardiness remained at the original level. When moved from +4 to -2°C, seedlings were able to reharden only after the time required for bud burst in the forcing conditions had reached the minimum.Pinus sylvestris

A decrease in the net photosynthetic rate was recorded using an infrared gas analyzer after subjecting pine seedlings to naturally occurring or artificial low temperature pulses in field and laboratory experiments. Mathematical models were developed to quantify the depression in CO2 exchange observed when autumn measurements taken in the field were analyzed. A model which included a mathematically determined additional parameter gave values more closely correlated with CO2 exchange at the end of the measuring period better than one which included only temperature and light as independent variables. This modelling approach was similar to one used earlier to quantify the effect of water stress on photosynthesis. The same kind of effect was found in a laboratory experiment after artificial low temperatures, as shown in this paper.

Summary The field data for photosynthetic CO 2 uptake was analyzed and a simulation model for the recovery of CO 2 uptake then developed that expressed the stage of development of the trees in spring. Four different hypotheses were tested concerning the relationship between the rate of maturation and temperature. A certain double sigmoid-curve was found to be best in prediction. Warm periods increased and cool ones decreased the rate of maturation. According to the results this relationship between the rate of maturation and temperature was not the same throughout the whole springtime period, but instead appeared to depend apart from on temperature, on the stage of development. The presented approach allowed the approximation of photosynthetic rate and its control during the whole spring using pure environmental data.