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College sports are in a state of logistical chaos. How did we get here? Where do we go next? What does the future of college sports look like? The driving force behind much of this uncertainty is the demise of amateurism at the Division I level of competition. The National Collegiate Athletic Association ("NCAA") has struggled to define what makes a college athlete an "amateur" since its inception. Over time--and under the NCAA's purported control--the line between amateur and professional athletes has become increasingly blurred. The NCAA's failure to maintain the amateur model at the Division I level poses a substantial threat to the NCAA in the context of antitrust litigation. Antitrust challenges to the NCAA's amateurism rules constitute a highly contested topic for all stakeholders of college sports: the players, the coaches, the fans, etc. This Note explores the loss of amateurism in Division I sports and the resulting scrutiny the NCAA has faced, especially in recent years. Approaching this issue with an antitrust lens, this Note illustrates how the NCAA's amateurism rules are evaluated by the courts and suggests why a court would no longer find the NCAA's amateurism defense to antitrust claims viable, at least at the Division I level. Throughout this piece, the Note critiques the NCAA's responses to the evolving landscape of collegiate sports, thus calling for a new method of oversight to preserve what is left of amateurism. This Note argues that amateurism is still intact at the Division II and III levels of competition, but steps must be taken in the near future to protect these programs and this sense of amateurism from the imminent changes to the college sports enterprise. Accordingly, this Note offers potential solutions to avoid the loss of amateurism and insulate Division II and III programs from impending cost-cutting measures. To conclude, this Note highlights what a loss of amateurism altogether could mean for future NCAA athletes as well as consumers of the college sports product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When the International Association of Amateur Athletics (IAAF) changed its name to International Association of Athletics Federations in 2001, it was more than an acknowledgment of the organization's acceptance of professional athletes. Rather, this change symbolized a shift in thinking about the nature of athletics, what athletics competitions represented, and the commercialization of the sport that had been decades in the making. This article will consider the IAAF's pursuit to maintain control over global athletics through its transition from an amateur sport federation to a professional sport governing body. Drawing on official documents and personal archives of IAAF officials, the authors trace the internal views and debates, beginning with the IAAF's fight to maintain amateurism against collective pushback over issues of athlete pay, to the full acceptance of professionalism. The main focus of this article lies in the transition period in the 1980s and 1990s. The authors show how dropping the amateur from the name reflected not only the new embrace of professional athletes, but also the organizational turn away from amateur athletics. The authors will identify the processes that finally forced the breakdown of amateurism and ushered in a new era of professional athletics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Student-athlete compensation has been a consistent topic of controversy over the past few years, as critics question the legitimacy of the NCAA’s notion of amateurism and proponents favor the status quo. The Supreme Court decision in NCAA v. Alston has only served to intensify the debate, opening the door to alternative compensation structures. Despite a unanimous ruling in favor of the athletes, the limited holding of the case has only produced further questions. In his scathing concurrence, Justice Kavanaugh raises one such question: how does a student-athlete compensation structure comply with Title IX? This Comment seeks to address that question by analyzing two possible compensation regimes and their compatibility with Title IX. Student-athlete compensation has been a consistent topic of controversy over the past few years, as critics question the legitimacy of the NCAA’s notion of amateurism and proponents favor the status quo. The Supreme Court decision in NCAA v. Alston has only served to intensify the debate, opening the door to alternative compensation structures. Despite a unanimous ruling in favor of the athletes, the limited holding of the case has only produced further questions. In his scathing concurrence, Justice Kavanaugh raises one such question: how does a student-athlete compensation structure comply with Title IX? This Comment seeks to address that question by analyzing two possible compensation regimes and their compatibility with Title IX. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As part of its role as the governing body of collegiate athletics in the United States, the NCAA imposes rules that regulate both the behavior of its member-institutions and of college athletes themselves. Historically, courts have divided these rules into two groups: rules governing the commercial aspects of sport and rules that enforce the amateur nature of college athletics. Thus, rules concerning television-rights contracting are distinguished from those rules regulating the size of a soccer field or when a student-athlete is eligible to play. When NCAA rules have been challenged as violations of U.S. antitrust law, courts applying the standard rule-of-reason antitrust analysis have often found an anticompetitive effect. But where amateurism rules are concerned, a subset of circuit courts have withheld a rigorous application of the rule of reason and allowed NCAA regulations to stand under the "presumption of procompetitiveness" doctrine. In May 2020, in Alston v. NCAA, the Ninth Circuit applied the rule of reason and struck down NCAA limits on athlete compensation through socalled "grant-in-aid," the scholarship packages that colleges and universities provide to athletes. The United States Supreme Court affirmed the Ninth Circuit a year later, confirming its holding and underlying analytical framework. These decisions did not directly reach the presumption of procompetitiveness applied by the Seventh Circuit and other courts when reviewing NCAA amateurism rules. This Note, however, argues that the Supreme Court's stated preference for applying the rule of reason, and the NCAA's own slippery definition of "amateurism," strongly suggest that the presumption of procompetitiveness mistakenly lowers the level of scrutiny that NCAA regulations receive from courts. This Note concludes that amateurism cannot justify a light-touch approach to any NCAA rules. Thus, conformity with the law, and fairness to the position of student-athletes, requires that all NCAA rules be examined under the traditional rule-of-reason framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lacking in the philosophy of sport is discussion of the gendered numbers of sets played in Grand Slam tennis. We argue that the practice is indefensible. It can be upheld only through false beliefs about women or repressive femininity ideals. It treats male tennis players unfairly in forcing them to play more sets because of their sex. Its ideological consequences are pernicious, since it reinforces the respective identifications of the female and male with physical limitation and heroism. Both sexes have compelling reason to reject the practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Platonic definition of courage as the ‘knowledge of the fearful and the hopeful’ is often eschewed by philosophers of sport. In fact, the passionate nature of sport itself seems to testify against such a definition. Hence, accounts of courage within sport tend to emphasize the affective dimension of courage at the expense of the cognitive dimension. This essay argues in defense of the Platonic vision of courage as a species of knowledge as opposed to contemporary attempts to recover the affective dimension of courage, as exemplified by John Corlett. I shall argue that far from producing an overly intellectualized vision of courage, treating courage as a species of knowledge, even within sport, throws valuable light on the exercise of courage in sport and on the shape of sport itself with regards to the exercise of virtue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among philosophers, the question about strategic fouls has been whether they are ethically justified in light of our best conception of sport. This paper proposes a different defense. I argue that many strategic fouls should be excused even if we regard them as unjustified. I first lay out a partial defense of the assumptions that playing to win cannot be subordinate to playing skillfully and that winning has value that cannot be accounted for in terms of the skill that produces it. I then argue that the logic of competitive play structures practical reason such that it is unreasonable to require even an ethical competitor always to subordinate the aim of winning to ethical standards within the game. Some ethical failures should be excused. The argument implies limits on the excusing conditions. I discuss these limits in some detail, showing that they fit patterns in the common acceptance of strategic fouls. I then address possible objections. In conclusion I argue that the logic of excuse rather than justification explains a common reaction to strategic fouls, resolving what might otherwise appear to be a contradiction in that reaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the right of publicity of National Collegiate Athletics Administration (NCAA) student athletes. Topics mentioned include the status of an alienable right of publicity, the emergence of the right of privacy to benefit the publicity-holder and not protecting the identity-holder, the amateurism rules of NCAA, and some proposals to solve the alienability of the right of publicity.

Youth is passionate about sports, and they want to win. The performance of the players is crucial to the team's success. The members of the team with mental and social issues function less effectively. As a result of their problems, the professionalism of the Iraqi footballers has declined. This study seeks to determine the role of perceived enjoyment as a mediator between psychological and social mobilizers and attitudes toward sports activities in Iraq. This study is predicated on the quantitative data acquired from Iraqi players from various teams. 800 questionnaires were issued for data collection, and the response rate was fifty percent. This study's findings are determined using the PLS structural and measurement models. This study aimed to improve Iraqi athletes' attitudes toward sporting activities. The study concludes that perceived enjoyment influences the relationship between psychological and social mobilizers and attitudes toward sports activities. The addition of the current model to the body of knowledge is substantial. This report also includes highly suggested recommendations for increasing players' performance in Iraq by fostering a good attitude about the game. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sport has become a "universal" leisure, commercial and media activity. Team sports could help to better understand the character of sport (Ehrenberg, 1991). In this paper, the paradoxical functions of the coach are analyzed, ranging between the orientation of collective performance and the enhancement of the preference or talent of the other team members; in order to do this, the following points are analyzed: exclusion/inclusion; coach/team; training/competition; defense/attack; inside/outside; game/player; starters/alternates; reason/faith; victory/defeat. From the understanding of this paradoxical activity it will be possible to forward relevant conclusions for the training of the youngest coaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is customary for institutions that organize sporting competitions and events to exercise a considerable degree of authority over the participants. That authority is often manifested in the enforcement of penalties for infringements of fair play. This paper focuses on one concrete case from soccer, although I take the discussion to extend to other sports as well. I argue that not all fair play rules should be enforced by the respective organizing institutions, and that enforcing all of them indiscriminately is a cause of injustice, rather than promoting fairness in sports. I propose a principled way of making the necessary distinction between those fair play rules that are enforceable and those that are not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under an illusory nexus to education, intercollegiate athletics in the United States represents a multibillion-dollar enterprise that extracts economic rents from the majority Black athlete labor to the benefit of overwhelmingly White constituencies. Under the aegis of "amateurism," member universities of the National College Athletic Association (NCAA) collude to fix maximum athlete compensation at cost-of-attendance and strip athletes of the economic rights over their own name, image, or likeness. While this anticompetitive restraint encumbers all athletes competing under the NCAA umbrella, it imposes a disparate impact on Black and other minority athletes who represent a majority of the labor in the largest revenue sports: football and basketball. Although White coaches are the most visible beneficiaries of this anticompetitive restraint, the scope of amateurism's interracial distributional effects has largely remained uncovered. This article seeks to fill this gap in the literature. Leveraging data from multiple sources, including institutional financial reports and the NCAA Demographics Database from 2007–2020, this article quantifies the NCAA's wealth transfer away from primarily Black athlete labor to institutions and overwhelmingly White constituencies. Under the NCAA' restraint, we estimate that Black football and men's and women's basketball athletes at the Division I Power 5 Conference level have lost approximately $17 billion to $21 billion in compensation from 2005 to 2019 or roughly $1.2–$1.4 billion per year. The antitrust status quo's failure to enjoin the NCAA's collusive wage-fixing restraint, which causes such obvious antitrust injury and harm to athlete labor, underscores the fundamental shortcomings of using the consumer-welfare standard as the exclusive lodestar to investigate and enjoin anticompetitive conduct; it also exposes the divergence between "amateurism" as described in Board of Regents and the modern-day realities of college athletics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article talks about the prestige and glory of idealized collegiate athletes and their highly competitive programs like athletic compensation. It mentions scholarships provide a means to further the goals of amateurism to uphold an athlete's education; and also mentions that several people gather around their televisions or stadiums to support their favorite collegiate team, and for their respective university and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).

In the fall of 2017, the Department of Justice indicted a series of individuals--shoe executives, assistant coaches, runners, and financial advisors--alleging bribery and fraud. What made the actions of these individuals criminal was that they violated the NCAA's amateurism rules, and in doing so, defrauded publicly funded universities of the benefit of an eligible amateur athlete. NCAA rules have effectively created the crime of violating amateurism rules--a kind of federal amateurism fraud. While not unprecedented, the scope and extent of the prosecutions in these recent cases open the door to a novel set of implications for athletics boosters, coaches, and compliance units within athletic departments. Having framed the issue, the Article explores the question of the proper scope of criminal liability in this context, hypothesizing that to some degree, the universities may not be such significant victims, while intercollegiate athletes in some contexts can be. The Article then advances its central claim--that the effect of the criminal prosecutions for violating amateurism rules has been, and will continue to be, a loosening of the amateurism rules. Further, this shift away from amateurism will inform the NCAA's move toward allowing intercollegiate athletes to profit off of the use of their name, image, and likenesses. In Part I, the Article introduces NCAA amateurism rules and how reform may be imminent. Part II describes the recent criminal cases. Part III presents the theory of amateurism fraud related to intercollegiate athletics. In Part IV raises questions as to the prudence of this increased criminality and challenges the theoretical framing of universities as victims and college athletes as accomplices. In Part V, the Article explores the immediate and wide-ranging implications of the criminalizing and prosecution of NCAA rule violations. Finally, Part VI argues that the consequence of the heightened criminality of amateurism fraud has been and will continue to be a shift away from amateurism by the NCAA and its member institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last decade, antitrust litigation involving Division I athletes and the NCAA has resulted in changes to the NCAA's rules, presenting a threat to amateurism. As athletes have voiced concerns about their likeness being used without permission in video games, the difficulty of balancing sports and academics, and going to bed hungry when millions of dollars in profits are being made off of them, the NCAA has allowed conferences and schools to provide student-athletes with stipends for cost of attendance expenses. However, even though the NCAA has modified its rules, athletes continue to ask for more, and courts have responded. Recent litigation has resulted in the expansion of athletes' rights. In March 2019, U.S. District Judge Claudia Wilken declared that the NCAA and its major conferences are violating antitrust law by restricting the education related benefits athletes can receive. In May 2020, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld Judge Wilken's decision that the NCAA cannot limit the non-cash education-related benefits available to athletes in Division I of the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS). This Comment will discuss how antitrust litigation has impacted amateurism. Parts III and IV will detail the Ninth Circuit's decision in Alston, examine ways the NCAA can modernize to limit athlete exploitation, and discuss how the NCAA and studentathletes can benefit from these solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the 1905 Congrès Olympique, or Olympic Congress, that took place in Bruxelles, or Brussels, Belgium, entitled "Congrès International du Sport et d’Education physique," or "International Congress of Sport and Physical Education." It considers the relationship between the Comité International Olympique (CIO), or International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the French sports movement. The author also reflects on the institutionalization of sports, amateurism in the Olympics, and the desire for an organizational model based on federalism.

The purpose of this article is to offer a sociohistorical overview of academic reform in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). To do so, the author draws heavily from football history and its association with academic reform in the broader intercollegiate athletics context. Intercollegiate athletics has undergone significant changes in professionalism and academic integrity over time--something that suggests the current dysfunctional structure can be systemically changed, too. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines trash talking, or sledging, in professional sports, and how though it is normally condemned it may serve an acceptable purpose under certain circumstance. The author discusses how the idealization of sports, through such concepts as "proper" sportsmanship, could possibly be too narrow and may not apply to modern sports. According to the author strategy and planning are just as important to modern sports as athletic ability. The author explains how the importance of strategy and planning to modern sports relates to the idea of trash talking, or sledging, because some strategies may call for such actions. The author also explores the idea that a competitive athlete will have more success than one who is just simply athletic.

The article focuses on various aspects of gamesmanship. Gamesmanship is a strategy designed for winning regardless of athletic excellence. Violation of the rules nullifies gamesmanship. Also gamesmanship relies on the rules in order to exist. Winning is a goal of the activity of sport. Although winning is an indicator of excellence, it does not indicate that winners are excellent. Excellence is the description not of a score line but of a deliberately extended activity. Competition in sports is valuable as it compels a response to various kinds of challenge, whether to one's level of physical competence or to one's sense of self.

The article focuses on the Stoic conduct in the sports world. In the "American Heritage Dictionary" a Stoic is defined as "one who is seemingly indifferent to or unaffected by pleasure or pain." The Stoic sportsman must have such emotions in order for sport to be a training ground for the development of virtuous states of character. The Stoic sportsman must care about the achievement of excellence and the pursuit of victory. The Stoic sportsman loves virtuous states of character and maintains her magnanimity. The sportsman preserves carefulness by concentrating on performing the techniques of the game, the playing of the sport.

The article discusses sportsmanship as an honor. According to the author, it explains a crucial part of the anxiety competitors feel when they are about to meet a completely unknown player or team. The worry is not just over their opponent's talent, intensity and desire and hence over the outcome of the pending competition, but even more seriously over their opponent's character. Honor thrives not in anonymous crowds but in groups small enough to become acquainted with one another's character, so that mutual recognition of honorable behavior can occur. To be assured of the honorable character of an opponent is not to be assured of winning or losing, it is to be assured that one will be treated fairly, neither humiliated in defeat nor despised in victory and this is a very important piece of information indeed.

Prospective interview data obtained using the Scanlan Collaborative Interview Method (Scanlan, Russell, Wilson, & Scanlan, 2003) allow further testing and expansion of the Sport Commitment Model (Scanlan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, & Keeler, 1993) and provide a deeper understanding of the commitment process. We examine the Model constructs of Sport Enjoyment, Involvement Opportunities, Involvement Alternatives, Personal Investments, Social Constraints, and a potential new construct, Social Support, to understand how and under what conditions each of the constructs operates. The data from 15 New Zealand All Black rugby players support the Model predictions, show its generalizability from American youth sport to amateur elite-level New Zealand athletes, and suggest possible Model expansion and modification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the professional hockey industry to explore the principles of agency theory. Using basic tenets derived from the agency literature and conditions specific to the hockey industry, a series of propositions are developed. These are investigated using data from industry documents, popular articles on hockey, and interviews with players, agents, team managers and other relevant industry stakeholders. The results suggested that concerns for agent reputation, agent competition, agent certification and salary disclosure have cumulatively reduced information asymmetry favoring the agent and have decreased the likelihood of agent opportunism. This has resulted in a decrease in the use of commissions by agents, but this form of performance contingent compensation remains the most widely used form of remuneration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on law of private associations claim and not an antitrust claim that could be made against the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Topics include brief history of the NCAA's amateurism rules; development of collegiate agency laws; and information on Adidas college basketball scandal.

Contemporaneously described as the unfortunate Games, the New Zealand team experience at the Munich Olympic Games was clouded by the Israeli hostage tragedy, and a series of controversies involving sex, amateurism and team mismanagement. However, the Munich Games also took place against an international background of overt political interference in sport and endemic drug use amongst athletes, juxtaposed with immature anti-doping systems. Using archival documents and contemporary sources, this paper briefly establishes the context for anabolic steroid use by athletes at the 1972 Olympic Games, prior to examining the allegations of anabolic steroid use by members of the New Zealand team. The subsequent response of the New Zealand Olympic and British Commonwealth Games Association and specific national sporting organizations to those allegations are highlighted and evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study intended to obtain the average somatotype for each rugby position in all active players from the state of Nuevo León, Mexico. This was a state of the art study of Mexican rugby players, having no record of previous research, and to make talent scouting and the development of performance analysis easier. Materials and methods: All of the registered and active rugby players from Nuevo León were measured through anthropometry with the method described by Heath-Carter, obtaining the necessary data to determine the somatotype. Body mass, skinfold sum, and height were quantified by direct methods, and body fat mass percentage was quantified by indirect methods. Results: A total of 56 rugby players took part in the study, with an age of 21.7 ± 4.7 years. The average somatotype of the whole study group was 3.9 - 6.1 - 1.1, corresponding to endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy, respectively, and matching with a mesomorphic and endomorphic profile except for one single subgroup, which matched with a mesomorphic and ectomorphic profile. Conclusion: There was not an evident difference between the somatotypes obtained for every subgroup, which were compared with similar studies made in rugby playing countries. The difference was more evident between position somatotypes. These variations between positions reflect the higher level of athletic specialization required for performance. The lack of variation between rugby position somatotypes reflects the low athletic level of Northeastern Mexican rugby. It is necessary for future research to enlarge the study and get an adequate sample size of the average Mexican rugby position somatotype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the provision of positive social models by the elite sports through professionalization and commercialization. Details on the racism and discrimination of ethnic minorities; Impact of sports on social attitudes and character traits; Concept of Nazi ideology.