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To mitigate the costs and risks of travel, Greek communities utilized the formal social institution of proxenia. The honorific title of proxenos ("public host") was bestowed upon someone in another community who provided travelers with hospitality services, such as physical accommodation, social access, and legal protections. This social institution of proxenia, similar to but more specific than ancient patronage or benefaction, offers a fruitful heuristic model for interpreting travel among early Christians and the role of host-leaders within the emerging movement. Itinerant Christians would have utilized the proxenos -paradigm and cultivated proxenos -like relationships with prominent Christian hosts. This paper examines how Philemon and Phoebe functioned as proxenos -like hosts for Christians traveling through their respective cities. We conclude with discussions regarding the prominence and authority of proxenia-like host-leaders within early Christian social networks. Such people with the capacity to facilitate travel and grant social inclusion amassed significant power, as they became the centralized nodes enabling social connectivity.. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Late Antiquity, as today, women's veiling was a contentious topic. Early Christian churchmen wrote about it at length, exhorting women to cover and criticizing those they considered were not veiling appropriately. According to these writers, veils were an essential garment tied to Christian modesty and religious ideas about female submission to male authority. Modern scholarship has tended to side with these clergymen, often claiming that with the rise of Christianity came the social expectation that adult women cover their heads. However, veiling had been a part of life in the Mediterranean for centuries, and the frustration and frequency with which churchmen urged women to veil suggests that contemporary practices often diverged significantly from their expectations. This article examines veiling and head-covering as a complex social practice shaped by numerous intersectional and situational factors beyond religion, including status, practicality, fashion and social context. It explores a wide range of visual and material culture to illuminate the diversity of veiling beyond the diatribes of churchmen. Throughout, how we understand veiling in the past is brought into dialogue with scholarship on modern Islamic veiling to address biases towards veiled women and to find new ways of centring women's experiences and everyday practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Confirmation, one of the seven sacraments in Lombard's schedule, was retained by the English Reformers, but not as a sacrament and without any distinctive quasi-sacramental grace attributed to it. It became a ceremony to complete the catechizing process for children who, having been baptized as infants, were at the age of discretion now to come to holy communion. The reformers thought that a post-baptismal laying on of hands had been practised from apostolic times, and so commended the ceremony for their church practice. This requirement enabled later generations, such as Gregory Dix, to bid up its significance, teaching that confirmation completes baptism, and thus that water-baptism is of itself incomplete. The underlying premise has been that from the apostles onwards a requisite second initiatory ceremony invariably followed baptism. Both Bible and early church history contradict this thesis, not least the eight post-apostolic authors of the first two centuries who mention baptism. All eight testify to the use of water without any further ceremony. Thus, any insistence upon a two-stage sacramental initiation today lacks historical foundations; Anglicans ought to review residual texts and practices which reflect such a pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the number of Chinese Christian organizations in Europe has grown considerably compared to other overseas Chinese community organizations. They can mobilize transnational networks and resources to expand religious space in host societies and form a highly visible social force. Although the rise of early Christianity in the Western world has been considered an outcome of inherent religious strength, especially in terms of its central doctrines and religious ethics, this article suggests that in the diasporic Chinese world where Christianity constitutes a non-indigenous religious tradition, social relatedness based on native place, family, and kinship ties provides a more useful context for understanding its dynamic expansion and cross-regional transmission. Drawing on anthropological fieldwork conducted in Europe among overseas Chinese Christian traders and entrepreneurs, this research seeks an alternative framework for understanding the religious-cultural dynamics of Chinese Christianity in the context of transnational migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Easter controversy of the late second century unveiled a profound theological and cultural debate within early Christianity. Originating from differing practices regarding the calculation of Easter dates, the dispute pitted the churches of Asia Minor against the Roman Church. This paper primarily employs a method of documentary analysis. It analyzes the accounts provided by the fourth-century historian Eusebius of Caesarea in his work The History of the Church. It is also cross-referenced with the works of second-century Christian writers. Through this process, this paper seeks to reconstruct the situation of this Easter controversy. Furthermore, it aims to uncover the struggle for apostolic authority concealed beneath the surface of this debate over dates. Central figures like Victor I and Polycrates engaged in this struggle for Apostolic authority, responding to challenges posed by heresies. Victor I leveraged his position to convene religious conferences and issue excommunication decrees against dissenting churches, laying claim to the papal primacy. However, Polycrates invoked the apostolic succession and heritage from John the Apostle to assert the legitimacy of the churches in Asia Minor, challenging Victor I's attempts at centralizing power within the Roman see. The controversy reflected broader debates over apostolic succession and ecclesiastical power structures. The Easter controversy serves as a case study of the Early Church's engagement with practical theology and the integration of religious festival culture with social backgrounds, highlighting the significance of Easter as a symbol of Christian unity and collective memory. This debate highlighted theological nuances and underscored broader issues of communal identity and the power struggle within early Christian communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After setting out the background of the early history of the Church of the East, this contribution focuses on the Syriac sources of the fifth to seventh centuries which are witnesses to the development of the 'two-nature' Christology of the Church of the East, situated outside the Roman Empire during this formative period. Special attention is paid to the ambiguous term qnoma, which is used to render hypostasis in the Chalcedonian Definition, but which, for native Syriac authors, has the different sense of 'defining characteristic'. The problematic designation 'Nestorian' should be avoided since it implies completely different things to different parties. Some final thoughts are given to the ongoing significance of the tradition of the Church of the East in its various present-day manifestations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While studies of how Paul and the Pauline letters were received in early Christianity continue to appear at an ever-quickening rate, there are still corners of early Christian literature that remain underexplored with regard to Pauline reception. The letters of Ignatius of Antioch would not usually be included in the underexplored category, but this article argues that one statement within Ignatius's letters is deserving of more careful attention vis-à-vis its relationship to Pauline themes and terminology. After showing that interpretations of Ignatius's Philadelphians (Phld.) 8.2 have typically run along two opposing tracks, the article argues that both ways of interpreting Ignatius's letter fail to do justice to his rhetoric in the letter. The article proposes an alternative way of reading Ignatius's justification language in Phld. 8.2. Whereas Paul wrote about justification before God, Ignatius desires to be proven right in the eyes of his Philadelphian readers, with whom he has had a dispute. The article concludes by offering ways to account for the different meanings evidenced in the letters of Ignatius and Paul while also endeavouring to explain the purpose for which Ignatius employs terminology that is similar to that of Paul. In the final clause of Phld. 8.2, Pauline terminology provides Ignatius not with his doctrinal substance but rather with authoritative rhetoric that evokes the Apostle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on honoring the memory of Professor Donald MacKay, with the author sharing personal recollections of their long-standing friendship, including MacKay's early involvement with the Research Scientists Christian Fellowship. Topics include MacKay's academic achievements in physics, his contributions during World War II, and the enduring bonds formed among colleagues during that time, as depicted through personal anecdotes and photographs.

This article is about J. R. R. Tolkien's adaptation of Pythagorean musical elements in the 'Song of the Ainur' of the Silmarillion. It details Tolkien's use of Pythagorean dissonance, along with what that amounts to in terms of musical theory, and explores the epistemological origins of the concept and how it found its way into this work of fiction. On the latter point, Platonism, Neoplatonism, and early Christian theology are considered. This includes the likes of Prudentius, pseudo-Dionysius, Augustine, and Aquinas, among others. The article observes that Tolkien has deliberately chosen a somewhat esoteric element of Pythagorean musical theory, albeit highly relevant to his own historical context, in order to explore concepts of morality along with the traditional, Christian conundrum of predestination vs. free will. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paul often uses metaphors as a method of persuasion. In Rom 8, Paul's use of kinship metaphors such as "sonship" and being "heirs" is particularly ubiquitous. Paul writes to an audience situated in Rome where they would have been well aware of kinship metaphors as this inter alia formed part of the Julio-Claudio Caesars' vocabulary and legitimation of their rule. Paul's familial metaphors would have resonated with an audience in Rome au fait with the notion of adoption and its implications. The use of the images of "sonship" and "heir" also function as spatial metaphors indicating a vertical and horizontal understanding which the audience would have picked up on. The spatial metaphors contribute to an understanding of "in" and "out", underscoring an alternative family identity found in Christ. These metaphors play a role in the formation and construction of what is later to be called early Christianity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this essay, I argue that modern science can function as a source of "sacred reminders" for aspects of Christian theology, like the doctrine of the Trinity, that are not normally engaged with in the empirical world. This approach is an alternative to the usual ways of relating scientific and theological endeavors in terms of conflict, separation, or consonance. I demonstrate this by beginning with the thoughts of two representative physicists (John Archibald Wheeler and Steven Hawking), particularly focusing on a fundamental distinction they make about the underlying ideal of the physical sciences. Noting a striking similarity of this distinction with some of the biblical imagery of God's Word and Spirit, I review biblical texts along these lines to show partial continuity with the groundbreaking ideas of our physicists, and to show how they can be generalized to include (a) levels of organization beyond those of physics; (b) intensive, localized agencies of Word and Spirit as well as the more extensive agencies suggested their ideas; and (c) the commissioning agency of God the Father. A review of the theology of Irenaeus shows that these distinctions in biblical imagery were developed in the early Church and played an important role in early Trinitarian theology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article briefly surveys the historical evidence of Byzantine deaconesses and trends in modern research on the order. By drawing attention to the detrimental effects of research bias, the value of an historical theology of deaconesses becomes clear. The diaconate, like all the major orders, evolved throughout the early Christian period reflecting an adaptation to changing circumstances. Historical deaconesses should be interpreted by the theology of their own time and place, rather than through the lens of the more limited liturgical role of the modern diaconate. Does theological continuity exist between the apostolic diakonia and the ordination and vesting of deaconesses in the eighth century? An historical theology of this enigmatic, yet canonical ministry will reveal the varied iterations of deaconesses extended the ministry of the apostles and bishops into women's spheres in a manner consistent with the Church's enduring theology and mission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article seeks to purvey a moral philosophical foundation to the apostolic letter. The apostolic letter speaks pointedly of the fatherhood crisis as an issue that needs moral philosophical atrention. The research will use two methods: the philosophical (content) analysis and applied ethical theories. Philosophical analysis is a general term for techniques typically used by philosophers in the analytic tradition that involve breaking down philosophical issues in order to bring clarity, consistence, and coherence. The method is used to analyse concepts like parenthood, fatherhood and shepherdship. Applied ethics is a philosophical examination, from a moral point of view, of particular issues in private and public life which are matters of judgement. However, the punch line, ‘Children today often seem orphans, lacking fathers’, is a direct moral challenge that calls for the application of the ethical theory of hunhu/ubuntu because love is hunhu/ubuntu’s character, nature and responsibility. From hunhu/ubuntu’s view point, I argue that one must acquire personhood primarily first in order to be a father. In hunhu/ubuntu, personhood and fatherhood are dynamic concepts; morally achieved and acquired. Hunhu/ubuntu is not asking that we replace God as the author of our being, but rather that our being as persons in the world is substantially of our own making. As such, we have a victory to win, and the path to that victory lies in the part of our lived morality (hunhu/ubuntu). God created us, but we must mould ourselves into the persons that God wants us to be. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the relationship between Bede and Augustine of Hippo, focusing on Bede's compilation of Augustine's comments on the epistles attributed to Paul the Apostle. Bede's compilation offers insight into how monks in the Anglo-Saxon era viewed the pastoral office, particularly in relation to 1 Timothy 3:1. The article also delves into Augustine's concept of the City of Man and the City of God, highlighting the different values and loves that distinguish their citizens. Additionally, it explores the tension between monks and bishops, with Bede emphasizing the importance of the bishop's work for the love of others. Ultimately, the article emphasizes the significance of living a life centered on love and bearing witness to Christian truth. [Extracted from the article]

Through the Medieval Era, the function of the Offices shifted from continual God-directed prayer to advancing and preserving local culture. The early form of the Offices found in the Rule of St. Benedict was built on the Psalms, engraining their words in the participants through the structure of the services and the weekly repetition. Commitment to primarily scriptural content is evidenced in early church traditions, papal decrees, and conservative efforts from clergymen. However, this focus changed with the emergence of cults of saints, which integrated the Offices into civic culture. As the number of feast days greatly expanded, cantors across Europe wrote versified Offices derived from saints' vitae, drastically changing the textual content of the Offices and often with the purpose of aiding a specific political cause. The integration of religion into the broader culture demonstrated how worship in the Offices was gradually redirected away from God towards saints who could be used to lend authority to a ruler, a state, or church. This shift is explored through examining primary sources from the earliest years of the Offices and the later versified Offices, such as the Notre Dame setting for the Virgin Mary, the Beneventan Offices during the Carolinian invasion, and many less prominent Offices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thomas Graumann's book, "The Acts of Early Church Councils: Production and Character," provides valuable insights into the complex processes involved in creating and understanding conciliar acts and canons. Graumann examines various sources, including the Conference at Carthage, the Council of Ephesus, and the Council of Chalcedon, to reconstruct the expectations and conventions for conciliar acts. The book is divided into five parts, covering topics such as the documentation process, the role of physical and paratextual features, and the editorial process. While the book's organization may pose challenges for readers seeking a comprehensive understanding of individual councils, it offers valuable information for scholars interested in the institutional life and textual productions of the early Church. [Extracted from the article]

This article explores apologetic early Christian approaches to Pontius Pilate, demonstrating the popularity of the idea that Pilate was innocent of Jesus's death, regarded Christ as innocent and just, and even became a Christian himself. Focusing on the exceptionally detailed image of the man who condemned Jesus to the cross found in the New Testament homilies of John Chrysostom, this article connects Chrysostom's treatment of Pilate to his interaction with a real-life (and pagan) governor of Syria. It suggests that apologetic interpretations of Pilate were used not merely to denigrate Jews but also to allow Christians who were themselves both Christian and Roman to believe that Rome had witnessed their Messiah—a historical example which proved the congruence of Romanness and Christianity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reads the emergence of a Romani political space in Jordan, and its containment in the private sphere in Palestine, through Hannah Arendt's classic The Human Condition. In modernity, Arendt argues, political potential has been stifled by a kind of despotism best characterized by a masculine domination associated with the private sphere of the family. Given that such a position is to a great extent based on Arendt's reading of Classical Greek, Roman, early Christian, and Enlightenment thought, what variations to such a neat division can be found in the case of Romani groups in Arab/Islamic contexts that are beyond Arendt's geographic and epistemological scope? This article puts Arendt's idealized notion of the public/private into conversation with the longue durée of settlement and politics of Romani groups in Palestine and Jordan. Working with Arendt and alternate but related notions of the public/private in the Middle East, this article aims to offer a nuanced understanding of kinship and politics in a context in which the political is incomplete without the private. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Illness, Pain, and Health Care in Early Christianity" by Helen Rhee explores how early Christians incorporated and reinterpreted Greco-Roman medicine and health care. Rhee argues that this appropriation of medical practices influenced the formation of early Christian identity, particularly during the fourth century when the status of the church within the Roman Empire changed. The book examines a wide range of primary sources, including Greco-Roman and Christian texts, and incorporates insights from medical anthropology to provide a nuanced understanding of health, illness, and care in early Christianity. Rhee's interdisciplinary approach and attention to detail make this book a valuable resource for scholars studying early Christianity and the intersection of medicine and religion. [Extracted from the article]

This essay employs the framework of affect theory to explore the role of emotions in producing and sustaining attachments to UFO narratives in episodes from early Christian history. Why, I ask, do UFOs and aliens keep popping up in the miracles, visionary experiences, and biographical exploits of early Christian figures? To answer this question, I focus on the ways affect is entwined with knowing—how the way knowledge feels structures the histories we tell. I argue that (ancient) UFO narratives are filled with pleasures, and these pleasures bind purveyors and consumers to fantastical modes of knowledge production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the most perplexing of John's theological riddles is question of salvific universalism and particularity. John is both the greatest biblical source of Christian universalism and the greatest source of Christian exclusivity. After all, the Johannine Overture affirms universal access to the saving–revealing Light of Christ, declaring: "The true light, which enlightens everyone, was coming into the world!" (Jn 1:9). What else could this mean, other than to affirm that every person has saving access to the divine Light of Christ? And yet, Jesus also declares in John 14:6, "I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me!" What could this mean, other than to assert that there is only one means of access to God, and that it involves saving belief in Jesus as the Christ? Sorting out the apparent contradictions within these tensions is the goal of the present essay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article "Baptized in the Name of Jesus" examines the theology and practice of the early church regarding baptism. It refers to Jesus' command in Matthew 28:16-20, where baptism in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit is mentioned. Baptism is considered in relation to the disciples as students of Jesus. The article also examines the role of John the Baptist and notes that baptism was understood as an act of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. The exact meaning of baptism and why John practiced it is not historically clear. The text also deals with the baptism of John and Jesus. John offers baptism as a sign of preparation and protection from the coming judgment. Jesus is baptized by John, but it is emphasized that Jesus is not like the other sinners, but freely and in solidarity joins their ranks to lead them to righteousness. Jesus himself also baptized, and some of his most prominent disciples came from the baptism movement. The text emphasizes that Jesus distinguished himself from the baptism movement and proclaimed his own message, which was intended to realize the conditions of the Kingdom of God in the present. Baptism continued to be practiced in the early church because it was seen as preparation for judgment. The Acts of the Apostles describes various scenes of baptism, which played an important role in early Christianity. Baptism is considered a consequence of divine action. In the letters of Paul, baptism is described as existing "in Christ Jesus," through which believers become sons and daughters of God and heirs of Abraham. Baptism is understood as participation in the way of Jesus and brings about a change in social status. It is part of God's eschatological work of salvation, and adherence to the Torah is not suitable as a means of salvation. Baptism is also understood as participation in the death and resurrection of Jesus. [Extracted from the article]

This essay explores the negotiation of Jewish-Christian difference in the beginning of the Common Era through a comparative study of the symbolic associations of midnight. It comparatively analyzes references to midnight in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, as well as their later reception in Jewish and Christian communities, with attention to how the early Christian community adopted Jewish traditions of time and revised them to reinforce emerging Christian concepts. This essay proposes that the divergent symbolic associations of midnight in the two canons illustrate some of the central concerns and self-understandings of early Christian and Jewish communities, which became thematic in the assertion of Jewish-Christian difference during the parting of the ways. It demonstrates that the midnight passages are thematically linked as a time of transformation, but the content of that transformation differs between the two canons, reflecting themes of concern to the communities that developed the texts. Across the passages in the Hebrew Bible, midnight appears to be symbolic of a transformation that leads to the creation or strengthening of the people of Israel. In contrast to the national transformation envisioned in the Hebrew Bible, references to midnight in the New Testament are thematically related in their presentation of midnight as a time of eschatological transformation, symbolizing the turning point from this world to the next world, and reflecting an emerging religious tradition focused on a redemption beyond worldly time. This essay argues that these distinct thematic associations present concepts of transformation that were asserted during the parting of the ways, as the two religious traditions formulated parameters around their identities. It concludes with an exploration of two distinct temporal visions that eventually emerged as the two traditions separated, drawing parallels [End Page 1] between the literary symbolism of midnight in the biblical text and later developments in Jewish and Christian perspectives on time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the Second Vatican Council and its impact on the Catholic Church. It acknowledges that the council aimed to engage with the modern world but notes that its implementation has been met with mixed reactions, with some perceiving it as a departure from traditional practices. The article delves into the intellectual, political, and cultural factors that necessitated the council and presents the original texts of its documents. It also discusses the challenges of interpreting and implementing these documents and acknowledges the confusion and turmoil that followed the council. The article highlights the role of Cardinal Karol Wojtyla, later Pope John Paul II, in promoting the council's teachings and addressing the cultural forces of the 1960s. It concludes by emphasizing the importance of understanding the council's intent and suggests a book by Weigel as a helpful resource for those unfamiliar with the council's documents. [Extracted from the article]

Not a Fall of Woman, but a Fanal for Education for Freedom in the Bible's Creation Story The article aims at a re-evaluation of the so-called Fall of Man narrative in Genesis 2:4–3:24, which since the early church interpretation has been linked to the loss of the image of God, which man had lost because he had partaken of the tree of knowledge in a forbidden way, whereby the woman is assigned a special guilt because she had seduced the man. This, however, was in no way the intention of the authors of this story in the 4th century BCE. Rather, the story is in dialogue with late-wisdom texts that, on the one hand, deny man the knowledge of good and evil, such as Qohelet and Job 28, or consider this knowledge to be a creative endowment of man, so Ben Sira. According to Gen 2–3, God has granted man the freedom of choice, which man can and does fail at, which is to be countered in the book of Deuteronomy by a complex theory of education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Letter to the Hebrews has long been overlooked in discussions regarding New Testament pneumatology or even considered 'inferior' compared to other New Testament traditions. However, this is a mistake, as the unknown author of this letter demonstrates a remarkable awareness of pneumatology, which plays a key role in the transmission of early Christian traditions and significantly shapes the formation of the New Testament canon. Hebrews presupposes the presence of the Spirit and explicitly associates it with the revelation of God throughout history. Furthermore, the author identifies his own theological and literary work with the Spirit's function of actualizing scripture, granting him a remarkable position among New Testament and early Christian authors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the study of early Mizo Christians as active agents in the Christianisation of the region the early Mizo pastors, the evangelists, the Church elders and the 'Bible Women' have been given more prominence. The contribution and role played by the teachers in the early mission schools have not really been the focus of the research. This article attempts to give an account of the early schools in Mizoram and focus on the role of the village primary school teachers. They are shown to be the main agents for transformation in the formative period of the history of the Mizo Church. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The modern discipline of New Testament Studies has subjected the various components of the New Testament to close scrutiny, yet it persistently fails to ask critical questions about the New Testament considered as a whole. In its familiar twenty-seven book form, the New Testament may be seen as a fourth-century anthology of early Christian writings based on earlier collections or sub-collections (the fourfold gospel, the Pauline letter collection), yet innovative in establishing a sharply defined boundary between included and excluded texts. An analysis of contributions to this journal over a recent five-year period demonstrates the pervasive influence of this fourth-century construct in determining the scope and priorities of (so-called) 'mainstream' scholarship. Greater attention to the contingencies of canon-formation will enable us to locate the texts that came to form the New Testament within a wider early Christian literary landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses the need for liturgical formation that Pope Francis recently highlighted for the whole Catholic Church in his apostolic letter Desiderio Desideravi. The current American Eucharistic Revival encourages engagement in this. Based on a detailed spiritual–liturgical reading of the Emmaus account (Lk 24:13–35), the article develops guiding principles for liturgical catechesis and considers their practical applications with a particular focus on families. The first principle underscores the connection between liturgy and life, which makes catechesis relevant for daily life, e.g., by including testimonies of parents. A second principle outlines the pivotal importance of symbols and suggests methods to enhance their understanding. Fostering active participation in the liturgy, the third principle, is a practical consequence because the celebration itself forms the participants. Moreover, liturgical catechesis connects explanation and experience, as the mystagogical catecheses of the Church fathers demonstrated. Along with Pope Francis, this article also highlights Sunday as a gift and discusses ways of integrating families in the Sunday Eucharist. Finally, the last principles shed light on the task of the priest as the "catechist of catechists". This article both explains the biblical basis of these principles and outlines practical ways to implement liturgical catechesis for families in parishes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire and the introduction of Buddhism into China, Christianity and Buddhism were both faced with the adjustment of the existing society. In the Roman Empire, faced with some censure, apologists began to write articles to clarify misunderstandings and express their beliefs. At the same time, there are similar argumentative documents on Buddhism in China. Their argumentation ideas also have many similarities, such as, firstly, distinguishing them from the original ideas, then using the existing ideas, and finally, actively integrating them into existing society. However, there are some bigger differences in the background of the debate between the Roman Empire and China—Christianity has strong political independence. The most fundamental difference is the atmosphere of the existing ruling ideology—China has been Confucianized, and the political independence of Confucianism is relatively weak. It is this fundamental difference that finally led to the final difference in the development paths of Christianity in the Roman Empire and Buddhism in China, which then affected their historical paths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting with Augustine's controversial translation and interpretation of Romans 5:12, this paper compares Augustine's and the apostle Paul's different understandings of "sin": Paul understands "sin" from the apocalyptic eschatological perspective, and regards "sin" as a cosmic power; Augustine, on the contrary, gradually understood sin as an ontological sin in the discussion of the concept of "original sin". Through the development and transformation from Paul's theory of sin to Augustine's theory of sin, this paper further discusses the interactive relationship between the development of early Christian thought and its social and cultural contexts and tries to outline the path of interweaving biblical text and theological thought in history, particularly to teach how Chinese readers should interact with scriptures in the Chinese context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of African Christianity from missionary tutelage towards the close of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century raised concerns of syncretism that only eased with arguments of contextualisation in the 1970s. The arguments some missiologists in Southern Africa made, especially about the older Spirit churches (Zion and Apostolic churches) as indigenising agents, almost retired the concept of syncretism in relation to these churches in favour of recognising them as being responsive to their context—hence, agents of contextualisation. The advent of the neo-prophetic movement requires a reconsideration of both the concepts of syncretism and contextualisation of the Christian faith, especially in light of the alleged interaction of some in this movement with ancestral spirits. The article concerns itself with the question: why does the advent of neo-prophetism require a conceptual reconsideration of syncretism and contextualisation and to what end? The search for an answer to this question adopts a qualitative desktop research approach. The study seeks to understand the reasons for the traditional healing (sangoma) prophet phenomenon requiring a reconsideration of the mentioned concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent scholarship on the Bodmer Miscellaneous Codex (BMC) has analysed various features of the manuscript, mostly attempting to answer questions like "Why was this codex created?" and "What purpose did it serve?" Some have given more specific answers, while others believe the document to be largely enigmatic. To further the academy's understanding of this ancient codex, this paper will examine the BMC, which comprises 11 different writings, for evidence of early Christian social identity formation. More specifically, it will heuristically apply Social Identity Theory (SIT) and Social Identity Complexity Theory (SICT) to reflect on identity and boundary construction in the BMC. It will be argued that various features of this ancient codex reveal a process of social identity formation, specifically an emerging orthodox Christian identity that is seeking positive distinctiveness and striving to reinforce the boundaries between an ingroup and various other outgroups. Furthermore, it is argued that the evidence of these features, in the context of persecution and competing Christianities, denotes a lower level of social identity complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous prophetic church movements constitute a significant portion of Christianity in Africa and a unique spirit in African Christianity. Garrick Braide was the first to lead such a group in Nigeria in 1915. The Christ Apostolic Church is an ancient indigenous church in Nigeria; however, it appears that the church faces problems generated by the apparent confusion about the origin of the church. This confusion is evident in the 2018 centenary anniversary of the church, contrary to the Golden Jubilee organized in 1980. Similarly, the leaders often claim that CAC is the first indigenous Pentecostal church in Nigeria, whereas it is on record that Christ Army Church was established in 1916 by Braide and his followers. As a result, urgent need was required to interrogate the traditions of origin of these two indigenous church movements and their prophets.The findings revealed that Braide's Christ Army Church preceded the Christ Apostolic Church of Babalola. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern American members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‐day Saints (aka LDS or Mormons) are among the most environmentally skeptical American groups, but it has not always been this way. The church has an exceptionally robust eco‐theology. In the 19th century, it espoused a strong "ethic of stewardship." The review focuses on the story of how and why this shift from eco‐theology to eco‐skepticism occurred, shedding light on how theology, wider culture, and other forces can influence value creation, and how these changing values can transform the environmental attitudes and behaviors of an entire people. LDS eco‐theology shares some principles in common with some other Christian faiths, but also includes a number of unique or unusual beliefs and egalitarian/agrarian practices. In the early church (19th century), eco‐theology contributed to a value system which prioritized creation care. However, early LDS community land practices did not necessarily live up to these ideals and the local environment suffered serious consequences. Then, with an influx of external influences, including a growing population of non‐LDS frontiersmen, Latter‐day Saint values shifted away from creation care and egalitarianism and toward individualism and capitalism. Church leaders stopped regularly preaching about the earth's value, instead focusing on individual salvation. Environmental action antipathy and climate skepticism became the norm. This volte‐face demonstrates both how theology can influence values and actions, and the inverse. This article is categorized under:The Social Status of Climate Change Knowledge > Sociology/Anthropology of Climate KnowledgePerceptions, Behavior, and Communication of Climate Change > Perceptions of Climate Change [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article tries to show the role of the father in the light of the canons of the early Church, starting from the beginnings of Christianity until the year 600. It concerns issues such as the father's responsibility for the faith and salvation of children, proper upbringing of offspring, protection of children against various forms of violence, and providing the child with appropriate financial resources (maintaining) and maintaining the father's authority in the context of responsibility for one's word. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article focuses on the challenges faced by Liberal peers in the House of Lords after the victory over the legislative veto in 1911, examining their distinctive position, membership, activity, identity and impact outside the House throughout the twentieth century. It mentions despite their weakened status and representing a party that questioned their right to sit, Liberal peers played a crucial role, contributing ideas and activity that benefited the Liberal Party during vulnerable periods.

This article examines the relationship between translated hagiographic literature and vernacular saga literature in medieval Iceland. It challenges the assumption that sagas were directly influenced by the lives of saints, instead proposing a more nuanced understanding of their connection. The author focuses on the character of Guðrún Ósvífrsdóttir in Laxdæla saga, suggesting that she reflects elements from the lives of four women penitents in hagiographic literature. The article also explores the different types of saints in early Christianity and how their lives influenced the portrayal of characters in sagas. It discusses Guðrún's transformation from a sinner to a saint, paralleling the journeys of female penitents in Old Norse-Icelandic tradition. The text also considers the social resonance and audience of these sagas in Iceland, despite the potential lack of relatability to everyday Icelanders. [Extracted from the article]

Attention has often been seen as a selective process in which the mind chooses which already‐formed objects to focus on. However, as Merleau‐Ponty and others have pointed out, this ignores the complexity and ambiguity of sensory information and imposes on it a set of already‐formed objects in the world. Rather, attention is a process by which objects in the world are constituted by the perceiving subject. Attention thus involves a process of mutual negotiation with the environment. There are connections between this and the process of attente described by Simone Weil, in which the perceiving subject suspends the dominant preoccupations of the ego in order to become more aware of an independent reality. This, in turn, expresses in a more modern idiom what early Christian teachers had to say about the role of attentive looking in the contemplative life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For most of the past generation, clinicians have been taught to treat patients' pain until the patient says it is relieved. The opioid crisis has forced both clinicians and patients to reconsider that approach. This essay considers how Christians in particular might assume and seek to overcome their experiences of persistent pain. Wise and faithful responses to pain, especially chronic pain, can take their bearings from how early Christians made sense of the place of both medicine and suffering in a faithful life. This results in not asking medicine to resolve persistent pain, especially not through the use of opioids. Resisting the impulse to medicalize chronic pain will require patience on the part of those who suffer, and both patience and fortitude on the part of the clinicians to whom they present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Freedom and movement are two concepts that appear to have a shared destiny. Common sense tells us that freedom means being able to move freely and at will. Philosophers have long been interested in the concept of movement, as evidenced by Aristotle's Physics. Freedom, on the other hand, is thought to be a later concern by some scholars. The ancient Greeks exercised freedom in the public sphere without thinking about it. However, over time, Early Christian authors, influenced by Stoics, have radically changed the ancient paradigm regarding freedom and movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article aims to examine the theology of the Epistle of James through the lens of the Gospel according to Matthew. James is a unique text in the New Testament deeply rooted in the tradition of Hellenistic Judaism. The writing presents theological ideas in the form of sayings or sentences, closely resembling the wisdom literature of the Old Testament and the Synoptic Gospels. The practical nature, rare doctrinal fragments, and the presence of recurring themes make it challenging to establish a clear division of the five chapters. They can be best grouped around eight homiletic-didactic discourses, mostly built around a macarism or aphorism, adapted by the author to a specific theme. Most allusions and echoes can be linked to the Sermon on the Mount, but not exclusively. Even though some texts resonate strongly with the Matthean text, especially thematically, and the phenomenon of intertextuality is impressive, it would still be quite bold to assert that James had a copy of Matthew in front of him when writing his Epistle. This is confirmed by the lack of exact quotations. It is very likely a catechetical or didactic tradition already present in the firstcentury Christian teaching at the confluence of the Jewish and Hellenistic environment, strongly influenced by Matthew, whose popularity is beyond doubt. The hypothesis is supported by the presence of similar themes in the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, literature highly esteemed in early Christian communities. It is therefore very possible that James was familiar with the Matthean Gospel through his cultic reading, justifying the theological depth evident in the treatment of common themes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After Christ's death upon the cross, the gospel of Matthew is the only one that preserved a tradition about the opening of the graves and the resurrection of the saints (Mt 27:51-54). According to context, this resurrection of the Old Testament saints diverges from the concept of Christ as the beginner of the general resurrection. The article scrutinises the history of interpretation in patristic literature, modern commentaries, and the ideas of resurrection in early Judaism and Christianity. The author argues that here the gospel may preserve an ancient tradition about the victory of the Messiah which was further corrected to converge with the post-easter tradition about Jesus who was resurrected after three days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the pesher interpretation, a method of biblical exegesis used by the Qumran community, and whether early Christians like the author of Matthew's Gospel employed similar techniques. Since the 1950s, scholars have analysed the so-called "formula quotations" in Matthew, finding parallels with the pesharim commentaries found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Krister Stendahl argued Matthew comes from a "school" using pesher to radically reinterpret Old Testament passages as fulfilled in Jesus. Others like Richard Longenecker also find Matthew employing this Second Temple Jewish method, especially in texts with "fulfilment formulae". However, objections have been raised. Joseph Fitzmyer notes the differences between Qumran pesharim and Matthew's use of scripture. Norman Hillyer wonders if the fulfilment formula indicates a distinct hermeneutic, not pesher. Ulrich Luz stresses Matthew proclaims fulfilment, not hidden meanings like pesharim. In conclusion, applying the ideas of pesher from Qumran to the New Testament raises problems. Similarities between pesher and Patristic exegesis are noted, but determining dependence requires examining the original historical meaning versus the contemporary application of prophecies. More analysis of whether early Christian use of scripture mirrors Qumran pesher or develops its fulfilment hermeneutic is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have long recognized that "practical geometry," the shapes and proportional relationships used to regulate construction, played a key role in medieval architectural design. Within this rich discourse, an emphasis on Gothic texts and buildings has produced a general image that master masons used totalizing forms to control the relations of parts to whole (such as ad triangulum and ad quadratum schemes). But as James S. Ackerman noted more than seventy years ago, many medieval buildings do not conform to this idealized method. A detailed analysis of the Romanesque Baptistery of San Giovanni in Ascoli Piceno, Italy (an adaptation of an Early Christian baptistery) illustrates an alternative mode of practical geometry, applied not as strict, regulating forms but as patterns of action governed by consistent geometric relationships with the variables of the site. This approach proved singularly capable of "regularizing the irregular" during a period marked by the adaptive reuse of ancient buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hartmut Leppin's book, "Die frühen Christen. Von den Anfängen bis Konstantin," offers a comprehensive and realistic examination of the earliest Christians, their religious practices, and their way of life. The book covers the period from New Testament times to the reign of Constantine, exploring the formative period of Christianity and its impact on the Roman Empire. Leppin draws on various literary sources to provide insights into Graeco-Roman and Jewish religion and philosophy. The book discusses a wide range of topics, including Christian identity, religious observances, leadership, attitudes towards marriage and sexuality, and the relationship between Christianity and the Roman Empire. It highlights the diversity and complexity of early Christianity while acknowledging shared values and enduring pressures experienced by its followers. [Extracted from the article]