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ObjectiveTo analyze the content of 6 kinds of amatoxins in 3 species of Lepiota collected from Chuxiong of Yunnan Province.MethodsThe collected mushrooms were baked and dried at 45 ℃， and species identification was carried out by morphological and molecular biology methods. The mushrooms were divided into three different growth periods （growth period， mature stage， aged stage） and different tissue parts （pileus， stipe， whole）， and the toxins were extracted by ultrapure water ultrasound. The determination was performed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray （ESI-） in multiple-reaction monitoring （MRM） mode， and the content was quantitatively analyzed by external standard method.ResultsNo amatoxins were detected in Lepiota clypeolaria and Lepiota cristata， while α-amanitin and β-amanitin were detected in Lepiota brunneoincarnata， and the content of α-amanitin was higher than β-amanitin. The total content of α-amanitin was highest in the mature stage （1.67 mg/g）， followed by the grow stage （1.56 mg/g） and least in the aged stage （0.40 mg/g）. And the total content of β-amanitin was also highest in the mature stage （0.71 mg/g）， followed by the growth stage （0.60 mg/g） and lowest in the aged stage （0.14 mg/g）. The cap part was richer in α-amanitin and β-amanitin than the stipe part in the growth and mature stages， while the content of α-amanitin and β-amanitin in the aged stage was higher in the stipe than in the pileus.ConclusionIn Chuxiong Prefecture， Yunnan Province， the flesh-brown ring-stalk mushroom L. brunneoincarnata mainly contains Amatoxins， including α-AMA， β-AMA， Amanin， and Amaninamide， excluding phalloidin and virotoxin. The content of α-AMA and β-AMA varies in different growth periods and tissues， providing reference for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of poisoning by this type of mushroom.

School nurses may encounter a variety of poisoning and overdose scenarios in the school setting. Younger students are more likely to experience unintentional exposures that are usually lower in toxicity, with the risk for harm increasing with age for reasons including substance abuse, self-harm, and exposure to more toxic ingestants. Poison Control Centers are uniquely qualified to assist public and health professionals, including school nurses, with poisoning and overdose incidents and are available 24 hours per day. This article is Part 3 of a series of three articles and focuses on poisonings related to environmental hazards that may be found in the school setting. Information includes expected clinical effects, potential for serious injury, and a reasonable approach to manage exposures for the following substances of potential harm: disinfectants and cleaners, lab accidents and other hazardous material incidents, poisonous mushrooms, and plants differentiating between poisonous, minimally toxic, and nontoxic plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Food Safety & Quality is the property of Journal of Food Safety & Quality Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Mycosystema is the property of Mycosystema Editorial Board and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Mycosystema is the property of Mycosystema Editorial Board and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Mushroom poisoning is a significant contributor to foodborne disease outbreaks in China. This study focuses on two Panaeolus subbalteatus poisoning incidents accompanied by epidemiological investigations, species identification, and toxin detection in Ningxia, northwest China. In these two poisoning incidents, some patients exhibited gastrointestinal or neurological symptoms approximately 0.5 h after ingestion of a large amount of wild mushroom. Specifically, in Case 1, one of the three patients experienced nausea, vomiting, and numbness in the throat and limbs; in Case 2, one patient reported dizziness and an abnormal sense of direction. Through morphological and phylogenetic analyses, mushroom specimens were identified as P. subbalteatus. Psilocybin and psilocin were detected in mushroom samples, and only psilocin was detected in biological samples by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole-linear ion trap mass spectrometry screening. The average psilocybin and psilocin contents in mushroom samples were 1532.2–1760.7 and 114.5–136.0 mg/kg (n = 3), respectively. Moreover, only psilocin was detected in blood and urine samples, with average concentrations 0.5–1.2 ng/mL (n = 3) and 2.5–3.1 ng/mL (n = 3), respectively. These findings provide technical support for managing similar incidents in the future. [Display omitted] • Two Panaeolus subbalteatus poisoning were reported in Ningxia, China, with detailed epidemiologic investigations. • Through morphological and phylogenetic analyses, poisonous mushroom specimens were identified as P. subbalteatus. • Psilocybin and psilocin were detected in P. subbalteatus , and only psilocin was found in biological samples. • This study provides technical support for managing similar mushroom poisoning incidents in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Foodborne diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality and a major public health problem worldwide. We aim to explore characteristics of foodborne disease outbreaks (FBDOs) in Zhejiang Province and to provide data support for foodborne disease prevention and control. To our knowledge, few such analyses have been published at the provincial level.Methods: Descriptive statistical methods were used to analyze the data reported by centers for disease control (CDC) at all levels in Zhejiang Province through Foodborne Disease Outbreaks Surveillance System (FDOSS) during 2015-2020.Results: A total of 962 FBDOs were reported during this period, resulting in 8324 illnesses, 1028 hospitalizations, and 20 deaths. The number of outbreaks (410 outbreaks, 42.62%) and cases (4991 cases, 59.96%) caused by bacteria were the largest, followed by poisonous mushrooms (157 outbreaks, 587 cases), which was the main cause of death (15 deaths, 75%). The highest number of FBDOs occurred in households (381 outbreaks, 39.60%), followed by restaurants (219 outbreaks, 22.77%) and canteens (174 outbreaks, 18.08%). Animal-based foods were the most common single food reported (232 outbreaks, 24.12%), followed by poisonous mushrooms (162 outbreaks, 16.84%), and plant-based foods (133 outbreaks, 13.83%). Poisonous mushrooms took the first place in outbreaks in households (38.32%, 146/381), while bacteria took the first place in outbreaks outside households. Vibrio parahaemolyticus was responsible for the largest number of outbreaks (232 outbreaks, 24.12%), which mainly occurred in catering service units (93.10%, 216/232). Different types of bacteria tended to be found in different food categories, such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, which was mainly found in aquatic products.Conclusions: Analysis of FBDOs can provide insight into the most important pathogens and sources of foodborne disease, helping authorities identify high-risk etiologies, high-risk foods, and high-risk settings to guide policies that would reduce FBDOs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

“Kakishimeji” identified as Tricholoma ustale and belonging to Tricholoma sect. Genuina is a common poisonous mushroom in Japan. Kakishimeji contains the toxic compound ustalic acid and causes digestive trouble. However, this fungus is consumed in some regions of Japan without any digestive issues. We clarified the probable species complex of Kakishimeji based on a phylogenetic analysis. We collected 89 basidioma specimens of Kakishimeji and related species from various forest sites in Japan and conducted phylogenetic analyses using 7 nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequences. Kakishimeji was found to consist of four distinct phylogenetic clades based on all DNA regions tested. Of these, two clades included European T. stans and T. albobrunneum type specimens. Another two clades consisted of sister clades to T. pessundatum and T. ustaloides. In addition, all four phylogenetic clades of Kakishimeji had different spore and basidium sizes. Therefore, we regarded the latter two clades as two new Tricholoma species: T. kakishimeji and T. kakishimejioides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yunnan Province, China, is famous for its abundant wild edible mushroom diversity and a rich source of the world’s wild mushroom trade markets. However, much remains unknown about the diversity of edible mushrooms, including the number of wild edible mushroom species and their distributions. In this study, we collected and analyzed 3585 mushroom samples from wild mushroom markets in 35 counties across Yunnan Province from 2010 to 2019. Among these samples, we successfully obtained the DNA barcode sequences from 2198 samples. Sequence comparisons revealed that these 2198 samples likely belonged to 159 known species in 56 different genera, 31 families, 11 orders, 2 classes, and 2 phyla. Significantly, 51.13% of these samples had sequence similarities to known species at lower than 97%, likely representing new taxa. Further phylogenetic analyses on several common mushroom groups including 1536 internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences suggested the existence of 20 new (cryptic) species in these groups. The extensive new and cryptic species diversity in wild mushroom markets in Yunnan calls for greater attention for the conservation and utilization of these resources. Our results on both the distinct barcode sequences and the distributions of these sequences should facilitate new mushroom species discovery and forensic authentication of high-valued mushrooms and contribute to the scientific inventory for the management of wild mushroom markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild mushrooms are a vital source of income and nutrition for many poor communities and of value to recreational foragers. Literature relating to the edibility of mushroom species continues to expand, driven by an increasing demand for wild mushrooms, a wider interest in foraging, and the study of traditional foods. Although numerous case reports have been published on edible mushrooms, doubt and confusion persist regarding which species are safe and suitable to consume. Case reports often differ, and the evidence supporting the stated properties of mushrooms can be incomplete or ambiguous. The need for greater clarity on edible species is further underlined by increases in mushroom‐related poisonings. We propose a system for categorizing mushroom species and assigning a final edibility status. Using this system, we reviewed 2,786 mushroom species from 99 countries, accessing 9,783 case reports, from over 1,100 sources. We identified 2,189 edible species, of which 2,006 can be consumed safely, and a further 183 species which required some form of pretreatment prior to safe consumption or were associated with allergic reactions by some. We identified 471 species of uncertain edibility because of missing or incomplete evidence of consumption, and 76 unconfirmed species because of unresolved, differing opinions on edibility and toxicity. This is the most comprehensive list of edible mushrooms available to date, demonstrating the huge number of mushrooms species consumed. Our review highlights the need for further information on uncertain and clash species, and the need to present evidence in a clear, unambiguous, and consistent manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mushroom is a nutritious food that is grown and consumed in many countries around the world. It is preferred for consumption due to its easy acquisition, the benefit to human health and taste. Although edible ones are beneficial for health, there are also poisonous types. It is difficult for people who are not familiar with this subject to distinguish which mushrooms are edible. Therefore, it will be useful to provide this process automatically. The study aims to identify poisonous mushrooms. In this context, a dataset containing the eight most poisonous mushroom species is created. The dataset created is trained with the fine tuning method using the pre-trained YOLOV5 algorithm. Precision, recall, and mAP metrics are used to demonstrate the performance of the method. The fine-tuned model enables the recognition of eight different types as 0.77 mean Average Precision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: An ethnomycological study was conducted to describe the fungus concept and the traditional fungus classification system for the Nahuas of San Isidro Buensuceso, in central Mexico. The study which provides information on the co-existence of various forms of classification, based on both cultural and biological characteristics. Methods: The research included conducting community interviews and forest forays in the company of mushroom pickers. The triad technique, pile sorting, and fresh mushroom sampling methods were used. Traditional names were analyzed to describe the Nahua classification system for fungi. Results and conclusion: The triad technique with non-utilitarian stimuli allowed the fungi to be identified as an independent group of plants and animals. The Nahua people of San Isidro classify fungi primarily based on their use, where they grow, and by humoral characteristics. The analysis of the names revealed a classification based on the criteria proposed by Brent Berlin. This study identified the detailed knowledge of fungi in this Nahua community. The criteria used for the recognition of the species are very reliable, since they use organoleptic, ecological, phenological, and morphological characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild mushroom foraging involves a high risk of unintentional consumption of poisonous mushrooms which is a serious health concern. This problem arises due to the close morphological resemblances of toxic mushrooms with edible ones. The genus Inocybe comprises both edible and poisonous species and it is therefore important to differentiate them. Knowledge about their chemical nature will unambiguously determine their edibility and aid in an effective treatment in case of poisonings. In the present study, the presence of volatile toxic metabolites was verified in Inocybe virosa by gas chromatography. Methyl palmitate, phenol, 3,5-bis (1,1-dimethyl ethyl) and phytol were the identified compounds with suspected toxicity. The presence of the toxin muscarine was confirmed by liquid chromatography. The in vitro study showed that there was negligible effect of the digestion process on muscarine content or its toxicity. Therefore, the role of muscarine in the toxicity of Inocybe virosa was studied using a bioassay wherein metameters such as hypersalivation, immobility, excessive defecation, heart rate and micturition were measured. Administration of muscarine resulted in an earlier onset of symptoms and the extract showed a slightly stronger muscarinic effect in comparison to an equivalent dose of muscarine estimated in it. Further, the biological fate of muscarine was studied by pharmacokinetics and gamma scintigraphy in New Zealand white rabbits. Significant amount of the toxin was rapidly and effectively concentrated in the thorax and head region. This study closely explains the early muscarinic response such as miosis and salivation in mice. By the end of 24 h, a relatively major proportion of muscarine administered was accumulated in the liver which stands as an explanation to the hepatotoxicity of Inocybe virosa. This is one of the rare studies that has attempted to understand the toxic potential of muscarine which has previously been explored extensively for its pharmaceutical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mushroom poisoning, also known as misetism, can lead to death, even in the present day, where medical facilities are highly developed. Of the 100 fungal species that cause poisoning, about 10 can cause fatal poisoning. Early detection of these fungal toxins is vital rdin case of poisoning. In this review, the methods by which fungal toxins are detected are collected in a single source. The main toxins; Amatoxins, Fallotoxins, Virotoxins, Coprin, Giromitrin, Ibotenic acid and Muskimol, Muscarin, Orellanin, Psilocin and Psilocybin. In the analysis methods; Thin layer chromatography, Eliza method, LC-MS/MS, HPLC, Gas Chromatography, LC-QTOF. The purpose of this review; The aim of this study is to provide a reliable source for researchers by combining the analysis methods of the main mushroom toxins which cause fatal poisoning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Mushroom poisoning is a significant and increasing form of toxin-induced-disease. Existing classifications of mushroom poisoning do not include more recently described new syndromes of mushroom poisoning and this can impede the diagnostic process. We reviewed the literature on mushroom poisoning, concentrating on the period since the current major classification published in 1994, to identify all new syndromes of poisoning and organise them into a new integrated classification, supported by a new diagnostic algorithm. New syndromes were eligible for inclusion if there was sufficient detail about both causation and clinical descriptions. Criteria included: identity of mushrooms, clinical profile, epidemiology, and the distinctive features of poisoning in comparison with previously documented syndromes. We propose 6 major groups based on key clinical features relevant in distinguishing between poisoning syndromes. Some clinical features, notably gastrointestinal symptoms, are common to many mushroom poisoning syndromes. Group 1 - Cytotoxic mushroom poisoning. Syndromes with specific major internal organ pathology: (Subgroup 1.1; Primary hepatotoxicity); 1A, primary hepatotoxicity (amatoxins); (Subgroup 1.2; Primary nephrotoxicity); 1B, early primary nephrotoxicity (amino hexadienoic acid; AHDA); 1C, delayed primary nephrotoxicity (orellanines). Group 2 - Neurotoxic mushroom poisoning. Syndromes with primary neurotoxicity: 2A, hallucinogenic mushrooms (psilocybins and related toxins); 2B, autonomic-toxicity mushrooms (muscarines); 2C, CNS-toxicity mushrooms (ibotenic acid/muscimol); 2D, morel neurologic syndrome (Morchella spp.). Group 3 - Myotoxic mushroom poisoning. Syndromes with rhabdomyolysis as the primary feature: 3A, rapid onset (Russula spp.); 3B, delayed onset (Tricholoma spp.). Group 4 – Metabolic, endocrine and related toxicity mushroom poisoning. Syndromes with a variety of clinical presentations affecting metabolic and/or endocrine processes: 4A, GABA-blocking mushroom poisoning (gyromitrins); 4B, disulfiram-like (coprines); 4C, polyporic mushroom poisoning (polyporic acid); 4D, trichothecene mushroom poisoning (Podostroma spp.); 4E, hypoglycaemic mushroom poisoning (Trogia venenata); 4F, hyperprocalcitoninemia mushroom poisoning (Boletus satanas); 4G, pancytopenic mushroom poisoning (Ganoderma neojaponicum). Group 5 - Gastrointestinal irritant mushroom poisoning. This group includes a wide variety of mushrooms that cause gastrointestinal effects without causing other clinically significant effects. Group 6 - Miscellaneous adverse reactions to mushrooms. Syndromes which do not fit within the previous 5 groups: 6A, Shiitake mushroom dermatitis; 6B, erythromelagic mushrooms (Clitocybe acromelagia); 6C, Paxillus syndrome (Paxillus involutus); 6D, encephalopathy syndrome (Pleurocybella porrigens). Highlights • Mushroom poisoning is an increasing problem, with new forms of poisoning described in recent years. • Previous classifications of mushroom poisoning do not reflect the diversity of clinical poisoning now presenting for medical care. • The literature on mushroom poisoning was examined, all new poisoning syndromes tabulated and a new clinical classification devised. • A matrix of clinical effects was used to develop a diagnostic algorithm guiding health professionals in correct diagnosis/treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mushroom poisoning is still a serious health problem for Turkey. The mushroom species which cause fatal mushroom poisoning have been reported to contain at least 98% alpha-amanitin. The knowledge of the poisonous mushroom species including alpha- amanitin is important for the treatment and prevention of these poisonings. In this review, the mushrooms containig alpha-amanitin and causing deadly mushroom poisinings were listed and given information about their poisonus effects. According to literature, nine poisonous mushroom species which include alpha-amanitin have so far been reported from Turkey. These are Lepiota brunneoincarnata; Lepiota castanea; Lepiota helveola; Lepiota subincarnata; Amanita phalloides; Amanita verna; Amanita virosa; Conocybe filaris and Galerina marginata.

Amanita exitialis Zhu L. Yang & T. H. Li is the species responsible for the largest number of mushroom-associated human poisonings and fatalities in South China due to its lethal cyclic peptide toxins. Prolyl oligopeptidase B (POPB) is considered a key enzyme in the production of the highly toxic cyclic peptide α-amanitin. However, the POPB gene of A. exitialis has not been studied. In the present study we cloned and sequenced the full-length A. exitialis POPB ( AePOPB ) gene. The aim was to verify the gene structure and functions of AePOPB . The full-length sequence of AePOPB is 3144 bp, including 18 exons encoding 730 aa, and the advanced structure is very similar to that of the previously reported POPB in Galerina marginata (GmPOPB). The amino acid sequence of AePOPB is highly homologous with those from other amanitin-producing lethal mushrooms, implying that AePOPB may have a similar role in the biosynthesis of cyclic peptide toxins. Expression levels of AePOPB were detectable in all parts and developmental stages of the fruiting bodies, and AePOPB was expressed more strongly at early development stages (early and late elongation stages). At early and late elongation stages, the expression peaks occurred in the stipe, whereas at early and late mature stages, the expression peaks occurred in the pileus. The expression patterns of AePOPB in different stages and different parts of the fruiting bodies were highly consistent with those of Aeα - AMA , which is required for α-amanitin accumulation. These results indicate that AePOPB should be involved in the α-amanitin biosynthesis in A. exitialis . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The monitoring inspection of food after the Fukushima nuclear accident (2011) was essential for ensuring food safety in Japan and reducing the adverse health effects due to incorporation of inacceptable amounts of radionuclides, in particular radiocesium (Cs and Cs). In this study, the mushroom fraction of the governmental data set of the first 5 years after the accident has been analyzed for contamination levels in mushrooms, in particular time trends and radioecological characteristics as well as associated health risks. The analyses show that mycorrhiza mushrooms are much more sensitive for radionuclide uptake than saprobiontic mushrooms (the latter of which include the very popular shiitake mushrooms ( Lentinula edodes)). The maximum value reached 31,000 Bq/kg in a sample of apricot milkcaps in 2012. Analysis of the origin of the samples revealed that the origin (in terms of prefecture) of the mushrooms was a less determining factor for the contamination level than the type of mushrooms, as most exceedances in 2012 and thereafter were found outside Fukushima Prefecture. Several dose models were applied to the data to evaluate both worst case and realistic effective committed dose scenarios. The doses were generally rather low due to low consumption rates in the Japanese food basket. In any case, the analysis proved that the food monitoring campaign was highly effective in cutting doses to the public by more than a factor of 10 compared with a hypothetical scenario in which no monitoring had been conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amanita fuliginea is a well-known lethal poisonous mushroom that was originally described in Japan and is responsible for most of the fatal mushroom poisoning incidents in southern China. In this study, the concentrations of amatoxins and phallotoxins in A. fuliginea from different tissues, developmental stages and collection sites were evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). High quantities of total toxins were detected in the gills, pileus and stipe, whereas relatively small quantities of total toxins were observed in the annulus and volva, and minimal quantities of toxins were detected in the spores. There were higher quantities of amatoxins than phallotoxins in all of the tissues, and the phallotoxins/amatoxins (P/A) ratios were higher in the annulus, volva and spores than in the pileus, gills and stipe. Further analysis of the toxins at different developmental stages revealed that the amatoxin and phallotoxin contents were relatively high and constant during early development, reached a maximum when the fruiting body was in the vigorous growth stage and later decreased during the mature stage. The collection sites had a significant effect on the amounts of total toxins but minor effect on the P/A ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amanita phalloides, colloquially known as the "death cap," belongs to the Phalloideae section of the Amanita family of mushrooms and is responsible for most deaths following ingestion of foraged mushrooms worldwide (1). On November 28, 2016, members of the Bay Area Mycological Society notified personnel at the California Poison Control System (CPCS) of an unusually large A. phalloides bloom in the greater San Francisco Bay Area, coincident with the abundant rainfall and recent warm weather. Five days later, CPCS received notification of the first human A. phalloides poisoning of the season. Over the following 2 weeks, CPCS was notified of an additional 13 cases of hepatotoxicity resulting from A. phalloides ingestion. In the past few years before this outbreak, CPCS received reports of only a few mushroom poisoning cases per year. A summary of 14 reported cases is presented here. Data extracted from patient medical charts revealed a pattern of delayed gastrointestinal manifestations of intoxication leading to dehydration and hepatotoxicity. Three patients received liver transplants and all but one recovered completely. The morbidity and potential lethality associated with A. phalloides ingestion are serious public health concerns and warrant medical provider education and dissemination of information cautioning against consuming foraged wild mushrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present study is to determine and compare total antioxidant status (TAS), total oxidant status (TOS), oxidative stress index (OSI) values and heavy metal content of Omphalotus olearius samples, known as a poisonous mushroom and gathered from Adana (Karaisalı) and Antalya (Konyaaltı) provinces. TAS, TOS and OSI values were determined using Rel Assay kits. Heavy metal content was measured with atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The results of this study demonstrated that the sample gathered in Antalya had a higher oxidative stress index and generally higher heavy metal content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Echinococcus multilocularis is a tapeworm that may cause alveolar echinococcosis (AE), one of the most dangerous parasitic zoonoses. As in the case of other foodborne diseases, unwashed fruits and vegetables, contaminated with dispersed forms of E. multilocularis, may serve as an important transmission route for this parasite. In this article, we reply to the incorrect interpretation of results of our study concerning the detection of E. multilocularis DNA in fresh fruit, vegetable and mushroom samples collected from the highly endemic areas of the Warmia-Masuria Province, Poland, to dispel any doubts. The accusations formulated by the commentators concerning our paper are unfounded; moreover, these commentators demand information which was beyond the purview of our study. Making generalisations and drawing far-reaching conclusions from our work is also unjustified. The majority of positive samples were found in only a few hyperendemic communities; this information corresponds with the highest number of both infected foxes and AE cases in humans recorded in this area. Our findings indicate that E. multilocularis is present in the environment and may create a potential risk for the inhabitants. These people should simply be informed to wash fruits and vegetables before eating. No additional far-reaching conclusions should be drawn from our data. We believe these commentators needlessly misinterpreted our results and disseminated misleading information. Nevertheless, we would like to encourage any readers simply to contact us if any aspects of our study are unclear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lethal amanitas (Amanita sect. Phalloideae) causemany casualties worldwide. Recentmolecular phylogenetic studies revealed diverse lethal Amanita spp. in China. Here a 5-gene phylogeny (nuc rDNA region encompassing the internal transcribed spacers 1 and 2 with the 5.8S rDNA, the D1-D3 domains of nuc 28S rDNA, and partial RNA polymerase II second largest subunit, translation elongation factor 1-a and b-tubulin genes) is used to investigate the phylogenetic lineages and species delimitation in this section. Thirteen species are recognized, including four new species, namely A. griseorosea, A. molliuscula, A. parviexitialis, and A. subfuliginea. They are documented with morphological, multigene phylogenetic, and ecological evidence, line drawings, and photographs and compared with similar species. A key to the Chinese lethal Amanita species is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amatoxins and phallotoxins are toxic cyclopeptides found in the genus Amanita and are among the predominant causes of fatal food poisoning in China. In the treatment of Amanita mushroom poisoning, an early and definite diagnosis is necessary for a successful outcome, which has prompted the development of protocols for the fast and confirmatory determination of amatoxins and phallotoxins in human biological fluids. For this purpose, a simple, rapid and sensitive multiresidue UPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of α-amanitin, β-amanitin, γ-amanitin, phalloidin (PHD) and phallacidin (PCD) in human plasma, serum and urine was developed and validated. The diluted plasma, serum and urine samples were directly purified with a novel PRiME technique on a 96-well µElution plate platform, which allowed high-throughput sample processing and low reagent consumption. After purification, a UPLC-MS/MS analysis was performed using positive electrospray ionization (ESI+) in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. This method fulfilled the requirements of a validation test, with good results for the limit of detection (LOD), lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), accuracy, intra- and inter-assay precision, recovery and matrix effects. All of the analytes were confirmed and quantified in authentic plasma, serum and urine samples obtained from cases of poisoning using this method. Using the PRiME µElution technique for quantification reduces labor and time costs and represents a suitable method for routine toxicological and clinical emergency analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, Dr. Paolo Davoli and his colleagues stated that the conclusions drawn by us were misleading from a mycotoxicological perspective, as they cast doubts on the edibility of a mushroom species ( Tricholoma terreum) that has been always recognized as safe. Unfortunately, they made a mistake, and seriously misinterpreted our data, which resulted in scepticism of our research. Saponaceolides B and M were tested for their stabilities heating directly on and boiling in water. It is undoubted that both saponaceolides B and M are capable of withstanding prolonged heating during cooking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cases of mushroom poisoning in Thailand have increased annually. During 2008 to 2014, the cases reported to the National Institute of Health included 57 deaths; at least 15 died after ingestion of amanitas, the most common lethal wild mushrooms inhabited. Hence, the aims of this study were to identify mushroom samples from nine clinically reported cases during the 7-year study period based on nuclear ITS sequence data and diagnose lethal peptide toxins using a reversed phase LC-MS method. Nucleotide similarity was identified using BLAST search of the NCBI database and the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD). Clade characterization was performed by maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic approaches. Based on BLAST and BOLD reference databases our results yielded high nucleotide similarities of poisonous mushroom samples to A. exitialis and A. fuliginea. Detailed phylogenetic analyses showed that all mushroom samples fall into their current classification. Detection of the peptide toxins revealed the presence of amatoxins and phallotoxins in A. exitialis and A. fuliginea. In addition, toxic a-amanitin was identified in a new provisional species, Amanita sp.1, with the highest toxin quantity. Molecular identification confirmed that the mushrooms ingested by the patients were members of the lethal amanitas in the sections Amanita and Phalloideae. In Thailand, the presence of A. exitialis was reported here for the first time and all three poisonous mushroom species provided new and informative data for clinical studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amanita (Agaricales, Basidiomycota) is one of the most well-known genera composed of poisonous mushrooms. This genus of almost 500 species is distributed worldwide. Approximately 240 macrofungi were collected through an ongoing survey of indigenous fungi of Mt. Jeombong in Inje County, Korea in 2014. Among these specimens, 25 were identified as members of Amanita using macroscopic features. Specimens were identified to the species level by microscopic features and molecular sequence analyses of the internal transcribed spacer and large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA. We molecularly identified 13 Amanita species, w ith seven species matching previously recorded species, four species (A. caesareoides, A. griseoturcosa, A.imazekii, and A. sepiacea) new to Korea, and tw o unknown species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amanita phalloides , also known as ‘death cap’, is one of the most poisonous mushrooms, being involved in the majority of human fatal cases of mushroom poisoning worldwide. This species contains three main groups of toxins: amatoxins, phallotoxins, and virotoxins. From these, amatoxins, especially α-amanitin, are the main responsible for the toxic effects in humans. It is recognized that α-amanitin inhibits RNA polymerase II, causing protein deficit and ultimately cell death, although other mechanisms are thought to be involved. The liver is the main target organ of toxicity, but other organs are also affected, especially the kidneys. Intoxication symptoms usually appear after a latent period and may include gastrointestinal disorders followed by jaundice, seizures, and coma, culminating in death. Therapy consists in supportive measures, gastric decontamination, drug therapy and, ultimately, liver transplantation if clinical condition worsens. The discovery of an effective antidote is still a major unsolved issue. The present paper examines the clinical toxicology of A. phalloides, providing the currently available information on the mechanisms of toxicityinvolved and on the current knowledge on the treatment prescribed against this type of mushrooms. Antidotal perspectives will be raised as to set the pace to new and improved therapy against these mushrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are few data estimating the human lethal dose of amatoxins or of the toxin level present in ingested raw poisonous mushrooms. Here, we present a patient who intentionally ingested several wild collected mushrooms to assess whether they were poisonous. Nearly 1 day after ingestion, during which the patient had nausea and vomiting, he presented at the emergency department. His transaminase levels started to increase starting from hour 48 and peaking at hour 72 (alanine aminotransferase 2496 IU/L; aspartate aminotransferase 1777 IU/L). A toxin analysis was carried out on the mushrooms that the patient said he had ingested. With reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography analysis, an uptake of approximately 21.3 mg amatoxin from nearly 50 g mushroom was calculated; it consisted of 11.9 mg alpha amanitin, 8.4 mg beta amanitin, and 1 mg gamma amanitin. In the urine sample taken on day 4, 2.7 ng/mL alpha amanitin and 1.25 ng/mL beta amanitin were found, and there was no gamma amanitin. Our findings suggest that the patient ingested approximately 0.32 mg/kg amatoxin, and fortunately recovered after serious hepatotoxicity developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To eat unidentified or misidentified mushrooms taken from the wild can be very dangerous. In the vast majority of toxic mushroom ingestions in Korea, the mushroom was incorrectly identified. In general, poisoning of toxic mushrooms can be classified into seven types according to the toxins that they contain; amatoxin, gyromitrin, coprine, muscarine, ibotenic acid-muscimol, psilocybin-psilocin and gastrointestinal irritants. When clinicians care for a patient who ingested a toxic mushroom, it is very important to identify what kind of mushroom may have caused a patient's illness. But, in clinical practice, accurate botanical identification of the mushroom can be very difficult. Therefore, for estimating the caused mushroom and adequate treatment of poisoning, clinicians should know the type and treatment of toxic mushroom poisoning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amanita phalloides is a toxic mushroom responsible for the majority of deaths occurring after mushrooms ingestion, mainly due to amatoxins. In the present study the contents and distribution of the major amatoxins and phallotoxins in different tissues of A. phalloides from two different sites of Portugal were analyzed by liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to diode array (DAD) and mass spectrometry (MS) detection. The main toxins were separated by LC and its chemical structures confirmed by MS. a-Amanitin contents in caps, stipe and volva tissues were quantified by RP-HPLC. The results show that caps have the highest content of amatoxins, whereas the volva was richest in phallotoxins. Moreover variability in the toxins composition from different geographic sites was also observed. This study provides for the first time the content of toxins in A. phalloides from Portugal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study which examines the epidemiology of mushroom-related poisoning in adults in Krakow, Poland. Topics discussed include the clinical symptoms of mushroom poisoning and the toxicity of the mushroom which is associated with collection, transport and long-term storage and incorrect processing after harvest.

The article discusses a study which assesses the patients admitted to the emergency department (ED) due to mushroom poisoning (MP) in Turkey. The study involved evaluation of the demographic characteristics, laboratory findings, latent phase periods of the patients and treatment of MP cases. It concludes the effectiveness of conventional and hemofiltration therapies in reducing mortality in suspected MP cases.

Mushroom poisoning is still a serious health problem for Turkey. The mushroom species which cause fatal mushroom poisoning have been reported to contain at least 98% alpha-amanitin. The knowledge of the poisonous mushroom species including alpha- amanitin is important for the treatment and prevention of these poisonings. In this review, the mushrooms containig alpha-amanitin and causing deadly mushroom poisinings were listed and given information about their poisonus effects. According to literature, nine poisonous mushroom species which include alpha-amanitin have so far been reported from Turkey. These are Lepiota brunneoincarnata; Lepiota castanea; Lepiota helveola; Lepiota subincarnata; Amanita phalloides; Amanita verna; Amanita virosa; Conocybe filaris and Galerina marginata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We aimed to investigate suspected cases of mushroom poisoning that were admitted to the emergency department of a metropolitan education and research hospital. Material and Methods: Suspicious cases of mushroom poisoning and determined mushroom poisoning patients were investigated in the medical records of patients who were older than 18 years old in 1 year. We examined patient's demographic information, admission date, complaints, time of complaint starting, and clinical and laboratory findings. Treatments and results were evaluated. Results: We analyzed 74 patients who were diagnosed with mushroom poisoning. The most common complaints of the patients were nausea and vomiting. Increases in the number of admission were observed in November and December. A total of 25 patients were externed from emergency medicine, and 39 patients were hospitalized. 5 patients treatment with hemodialysis and both of them died. Conclusion: Mushroom poisoning is known to vary according to seasonal distribution, type of mushroom, geographic shape, and climate of the region. Therefore, emergency physicians should investigate the characteristics and ecology of the region and the geographic shape, so that provision services can facility the emergency departments principles working and organizated. The importance of regional characteristics is lost in a metropolitan hospital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mushrooms are a recognized component of the human diet, with versatile medicinal properties. Some mushrooms are popular worldwide for their nutritional and therapeutic properties. However, some species are dangerous because they cause toxicity. There are many reports explaining the medicinal and/or toxic effects of these fungal species. Cases of serious human poisoning generally caused by the improper identification of toxic mushroom species are reported every year. Different substances responsible for the fatal signs and symptoms of mushroom toxicity have been identified from various poisonous mushrooms. Toxicity studies of mushroom species have demonstrated that mushroom poisoning can cause adverse effects such as liver failure, bradycardia, chest pain, seizures, gastroenteritis, intestinal fibrosis, renal failure, erythromelalgia, and rhabdomyolysis. Correct categorization and better understanding are essential for the safe and healthy consumption of mushrooms as functional foods as well as for their medicinal use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Lethal amanitas (Amanita section Phalloideae) are a group of wild, fatal mushrooms causing many poisoning cases worldwide. However, the diversity and evolutionary history of these lethal mushrooms remain poorly known due to the limited sampling and insufficient gene fragments employed for phylogenetic analyses. In this study, five gene loci (nrLSU, ITS, rpb2, ef1-a and β-tubulin) with a widely geographic sampling from East and South Asia, Europe, North and Central America, South Africa and Australia were analysed with maximum-likelihood, maximum-parsimony and Bayesian inference methods. Biochemical analyses were also conducted with intention to detect amatoxins and phalloidin in 14 representative samples. Result Lethal amanitas were robustly supported to be a monophyletic group after excluding five species that were provisionally defined as lethal amanitas based on morphological studies. In lethal amanitas, 28 phylogenetic species were recognised by integrating molecular phylogenetic analyses with morphological studies, and 14 of them represented putatively new species. The biochemical analyses indicated a single origin of cyclic peptide toxins (amatoxins and phalloidin) within Amanita and suggested that this kind of toxins seemed to be a synapomorphy of lethal amanitas. Molecular dating through BEAST and biogeographic analyses with LAGRANGE and RASP indicated that lethal amanitas most likely originated in the Palaeotropics with the present crown group dated around 64.92 Mya in the early Paleocene, and the East Asia-eastern North America or Eurasia-North America-Central America disjunct distribution patterns were primarily established during the middle Oligocene to Miocene. Conclusion The cryptic diversity found in this study indicates that the species diversity of lethal amanitas is strongly underestimated under the current taxonomy. The intercontinental sister species or sister groups relationships among East Asia and eastern North America or Eurasia-North America-Central America within lethal amanitas are best explained by the diversification model of Palaeotropical origin, dispersal via the Bering Land Bridge, followed by regional vicariance speciation resulting from climate change during the middle Oligocene to the present. These findings indicate the importance of both dispersal and vicariance in shaping the intercontinental distributions of these ectomycorrhizal fungi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The established tradition of consuming and marketing wild mushrooms has focused attention on mycotoxicity, which has become a global issue. In the present study, we describe the toxins found in a previously unknown poisonous European mushroom Tricholoma terreum. Fifteen new triterpenoids terreolides A-F ( 1- 6) and saponaceolides H-P ( 8- 16) were isolated from the fruiting bodies of the toxic mushroom T. terreum. Terreolides A-C ( 1- 3) possessed a unique 5/6/7 trioxaspiroketal system, whereas terreolides D-F ( 4- 6) possessed an unprecedented carbon skeleton. Two abundant compounds in the mushroom, saponaceolide B ( 7) and saponaceolide M ( 13), displayed acute toxicity, with LD50 values of 88.3 and 63.7 mg kg−1 when administered orally in mice. Both compounds were found to increase serum creatine kinase levels in mice, indicating that T. terreum may be the cause of mushroom poisoning ultimately leading to rhabdomyolysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Approximately 100 of the known species of mushrooms are poisonous to humans. New toxic mushroom species continue to be identified. Some species initially classified as edible are later reclassified as toxic. This results in a continually expanding list of toxic mushrooms. As new toxic species are identified, some classic teachings about mycetism no longer hold true. As more toxic mushrooms are identified and more toxic syndromes are reported, older classification systems fail to effectively accommodate mycetism. This review provides an update of myscetism and classifies mushroom poisonings by the primary organ system affected, permitting expansion, as new, toxic mushroom species are discovered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid evolution of toxin resistance in animals has important consequences for the ecology of species and our economy. Pesticide resistance in insects has been a subject of intensive study; however, very little is known about how Drosophila species became resistant to natural toxins with ecological relevance, such as α-amanitin that is produced in deadly poisonous mushrooms. Here we performed a microarray study to elucidate the genes, chromosomal loci, molecular functions, biological processes, and cellular components that contribute to the α-amanitin resistance phenotype in Drosophila melanogaster. We suggest that toxin entry blockage through the cuticle, phase I and II detoxification, sequestration in lipid particles, and proteolytic cleavage of α-amanitin contribute in concert to this quantitative trait. We speculate that the resistance to mushroom toxins in D. melanogaster and perhaps in mycophagous Drosophila species has evolved as cross-resistance to pesticides, other xenobiotic substances, or environmental stress factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Amanita exitialis is a lethal mushroom that was first discovered in Guangdong Province, China. The high content of amanitin in its basidiocarps makes it lethal to humans. To comprehensively characterize the A. exitialis transcriptome and analyze the Amanita toxins as well as their related gene family, transcriptome sequencing of A. exitialis was performed using Illumina HiSeq 2000 technology. A total of 25,563,688 clean reads were collected and assembled into 62,137 cDNA contigs with an average length of 481bp and N50 length of 788bp. A total of 27,826 proteins and 39,661 unigenes were identified among the assembled contigs. All of the unigenes were classified into 166 functional categories for understanding the gene functions and regulation pathways. The genes contributing to toxic peptide biosynthesis were analyzed. From this set, eleven gene sequences encoding the toxins or related cyclic peptides were discovered in the transcriptome. Three of these sequences matched the peptide toxins α-amanitin, β-amanitin, and phallacidin, while others matched amanexitide and seven matched unknown peptides. All of the genes encoding peptide toxins were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in A. exitialis, and the phylogenetic relationships among these proprotein sequences were discussed. The gene polymorphism and degeneracy of the toxin encoding sequences were found and analyzed. This study provides the first primary transcriptome of A. exitialis, which provided comprehensive gene expression information on the lethal amanitas at the transcriptional level, and could lay a strong foundation for functional genomics studies in those fungi. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

It is estimated that there are over 5,000 species of mushrooms worldwide. Some of them are edible and some are poisonous due to containing significant toxins. In more than 95% of mushroom toxicity cases, poisoning occurs as a result of misidentification of the mushroom by an amateur mushroom hunter. The severity of mushroom poisoning may vary, depending on the geographic location where the mushroom is grown, growth conditions, the amount of toxin delivered, and the genetic characteristics of the mushroom. Amanita phalloides is the most common and fatal cause of mushroom poisoning. This mushroom contains amanitins, which are powerful hepatotoxins that inhibit RNA polymerase II in liver. Mushroom poisoning is a relatively rare cause of acute liver failure. A 63-year-old male patient was admitted to the emergency room with weakness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. He reported ingesting several wild mushrooms about 36 hours earlier. In this article we report a case of lethal Amanita phalloides intoxication from stored mushrooms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: α-Amanitin, the main toxic substance from mushroom species (Amanita genus), blocks the activity of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) in mammalian cells causing inhibition of transcription and subsequent synthesis of structural and enzymatic proteins. It has been postulated that α-amanitin generates the increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration. The micronucleus (MN) test was used on an animal experimental model to evaluate possible potential genotoxic effect of α-amanitin on mice bone marrow cells. At the same time the activity of antioxidant enzymes: superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) as well as concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) were investigated in the lysate of mice erythrocytes. α-Amanitin was administered intraperitoneally at the doses: 0.1, 0.15, and 0.25 mg/kg bw (LD50 for mice) 48 h prior to sacrification. A statistically significant increase of SOD activity was observed in the hemolysate for all the investigated α-amanitin doses as compared to the negative control (p < 0.05). CAT activity for α-amanitin doses 0.1 and 0.15 mg/kg was higher in comparison to the negative control but the differences were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). However, for the dose 0.25 mg/kg the activity of CAT was statistically significantly higher (p < 0.001). All the tested α-amanitin doses decreased TBARS concentration in the hemolysate as compared to the negative control but the differences were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). A statistically significant increase of mean values of MN percent was found in polychromatic erythrocytes (PCEs) as compared to the negative control for α-amanitin dose 0.1 and 0.25 mg/kg (p < 0.05). For the dose 0.15 mg/kg the mean value of MN percent was higher but it did not demonstrate statistical significance (p > 0.1). The observed disturbances in the activity of the examined antioxidant enzymes in cells exposed in vivo to α-amanitin suggest indirect genotoxic effect of α-amanitin through ROS generation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]