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Parents are an integral part of the decision to study abroad, but little research investigates parents' perceptions about study abroad. This study uses the Theory of Planned Behavior as a conceptual framework to explain perceptions and value of study abroad by parents of agriculture students Land-Grant universities based on previous international experiences and other beliefs. Researchers delivered a questionnaire to 1511 parents at three universities to measure perceptions and value of study abroad, and intent to support their students' participation in study abroad. We found that parents had little international experience, which may limit their behavioral beliefs and impact their decision to support study abroad. We also found that parents believed short-term, summer programs, that cost between $2000 and $4000 were ideal. Finally, we found that parents believed that study abroad programs were somewhat important and that they were somewhat likely to support their students' participation. Administrators and faculty should consider parent expectations and value when planning study abroad, and work to provide education and outreach to enhance value beliefs and normative beliefs of parents. Further research should explore the predictive value of previous experiences in parents' likelihood to support a students' decision to study abroad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parent's socio-economic status is considered a protective factor in families, if it enables family members to access resources and to escape from environmental hardships, and if it acts as a buffer against suicidal behaviours. This study aimed to investigate what effect the parental employment status has on traumatised adolescents and their suicide risk. Using a cross-sectional and correlational design, 989 grade 10 learners from nine schools in the Free State province were selected. A self-compiled biographical questionnaire, the suicidal ideation questionnaire for adolescents, and the stressful life events questionnaire were used to gather information. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis investigated whether parental employment status moderates or mediates the relationship between stressful life exposure and suicide risk. Results indicated a significant relationship (p = 0.000) between stressful life exposure and suicide risk. However, the parental employment status does not moderate the relationship between stressful life exposure and suicide risk. Future studies should explore employment differences, as career choices may create different contexts for support and development of adolescents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses nationally-representative data from the PSID and CDS to estimate the causal effects of two parent socialization actions-talking to children about giving and role-modeling-on children's decisions whether or not to give to charity. We develop an identification framework based on the intra-household allocation and cultural transmission literatures that shows how different assumptions about parental response to time-varying unobserved changes in children's prosocial values can be combined with the child fixed effects estimate and the difference between siblings' over-time-differences estimate to infer a bound on the causal effect of parental action to socialize their children. Under the identifying assumption we think is most reasonable for socializing the willingness to give to charity, that parents treat the socialization actions of others as cultural substitutes, our estimates imply that talking to children about giving raises the probability of children's giving by at least .13. We find no evidence that parental role-modeling affects children's giving, except among non-African-American girls. The identification framework and substantive results have implications for those with a general interest in using data from naturalistic settings to estimate causal effects of parental socialization actions, those interested in the external validity of laboratory findings, and those interested in the socialization of warm glow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The social-ecological systems perspective suggests that bullying is best understood when the context is extended beyond the school environment to include families. However, there is currently a lack of qualitative research focusing on the experiences of parents whose children have been bullied. This study examined the experiences of 26 parents whose children had been bullied at primary school in New Zealand. The participants responded to an anonymous, online, qualitative questionnaire and the responses were analysed using directed content analysis. Participants described the significant impact of bullying on themselves, their children, and their families; and their experiences of how schools respond to bullying. School policies acknowledging a shared responsibility for dealing with bullying are recommended, along with greater awareness, support, and education around the effects of bullying on children and their families. Keywords: bullying, parents, schools, qualitative,, Bullying has been described as a dangerous, pervasive social problem (Rigby, 2008). Children and young people involved in bullying tend to demonstrate greater evidence of psychosocial issues than those who [...]

Background: Despite evidence for some genetic control of dietary intake in adults, there is little evidence of how genetic factors influence children's dietary patterns.Objective: To estimate heritability of dietary intake in twin children from China and test if genetic effects on dietary intakes vary by the children's socio-economic status (SES).Methods: A sample of 622 twins (162 monozygotic and 149 dizygotic pairs; 298 boys and 324 girls aged 7-15 years) was recruited in South China. Dietary intakes were assessed using a validated 145-item semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Pooled and sex-specific dietary patterns were identified using factor analysis. Heritability was estimated using structural equation models.Results: Heritable components differed by gender and for nutrients and food groups; and estimated heritability of dietary patterns was generally greater in girls than boys. In boys, estimated heritabilities ranged from 18.8% (zinc) to 58.4% (fat) for nutrients; and for food group, 1.1% (Western fast foods) to 65.8% (soft drinks). In girls, these estimates ranged from 5.1% (total energy) to 38.7% (percentage of energy from fat) for nutrients, and 12.6% (eggs) to 94.6% (Western fast foods) for food groups. Factor analysis identified five food patterns: vegetables and fruits, fried and fast foods, beverages, snacks and meats. Maternal education and family income were positively associated with higher heritabilities for intake of meat, fried, and fast food.Conclusions: Genetic influence on dietary intakes differed by gender, nutrients, food groups, and dietary patterns among Chinese twins. Parental SES characteristics modified the estimated genetic influence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the efficacy of Collaborative & Proactive Solutions (CPS) in treating oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) in youth by comparing this novel treatment to Parent Management Training (PMT), a well-established treatment, and a waitlist control (WLC) group. One hundred thirty-four youth (ages 7–14, 61.9% male, 83.6% White) who fulfilledDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(4th ed.) criteria for ODD were randomized to CPS, PMT, or WLC groups. ODD was assessed with semistructured diagnostic interviews, clinical global severity and improvement ratings, and parent report measures. Assessments were completed pretreatment, posttreatment, and at 6 months following treatment. Responder and remitter analyses were undertaken using intent-to-treat mixed-models analyses. Chronological age, gender, and socioeconomic status as well as the presence of comorbid attention deficit/hyperactivity and anxiety disorders were examined as predictors of treatment outcome. Both treatment conditions were superior to the WLC condition but did not differ from one another in either our responder or remitter analyses. Approximately 50% of youth in both active treatments were diagnosis free and were judged to be much or very much improved at posttreatment, compared to 0% in the waitlist condition. Younger age and presence of an anxiety disorder predicted better treatment outcomes for both PMT and CPS. Treatment gains were maintained at 6-month follow-up. CPS proved to be equivalent to PMT and can be considered an evidence-based, alternative treatment for youth with ODD and their families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research has shown inconsistencies in results and difficulties in conceptualization of assessment of socioeconomic status (SES) among adolescents. The aim of this study was thus to test the validity of self-reported information on SES in two age-groups (11-13 and 14-16 years old) in an adolescent population and to evaluate its relationship to self-reported health related quality of life (HRQOL). Different measures of SES commonly used in research in relation to HRQOL were tested in this study; parent's occupations status, family material affluence status (FAS) and perceived SES.Method: A cross-sectional study, with a sample of 948 respondents (n = 467, 11-13 years old and n = 481, 14-16 years old) completed questionnaires about SES and HRQOL. The adolescents' completion rates were used, with chi2-test, to investigate differences between gender and age-group. Correlation was used for convergent validity and ANOVA for concurrent validity.Results: We found a low completion rate for both fathers' (41.7 %) and mothers' (37.5 %) occupation status, and a difference in completion rate between gender and age-groups. FAS had the highest completion rate (100 %) compared to parent's occupations status and perceived SES. The convergent validity between the SES-indicators was weak (Spearman correlation coefficient below 0.3), suggesting that the indicators measured different dimensions of SES. Both FAS and perceived SES showed a gradient in mean HRQOL between low and high SES in relation to HRQOL, this was significant only for perceived SES (p < 0.01, both age-groups).Conclusion: This study indicates the need for considering different approaches to measures of SES among adolescences and when evaluating SES in relation to HRQOL. Further research is needed to investigate sustainable ways to measure SES, delineating the relevance of tangible measures of education, occupation and income in relation to the perceived socioeconomic status in comparison with others in immediate social networks and in society at large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research consisted of examining parental socialization taking into account the nature and variability of daily situations. The objectives of this study were: to explore parent' behavior according to the degree of importance of diverse situations included in the Parental Socialization Scale in Adolescence (ESPA29); and to analyze whether the importance of these situations is associated with parents' different socialization practices. Using the information provided by experts in family and/or adolescence, responses of 223 adolescents on the ESPA29 were analyzed from dimensional and typological approaches depending on the relevance of the educative situations over which parents have to intervene. Data analysis showed that adolescents perceived their mothers' behavior differently depending on the importance of daily situations. The need for understanding parental socialization across educative situations is highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Late in the 20th century, research found that (1) people living in religious nations will, in proportion to the religiosity of their fellow-citizens, acquire more orthodox beliefs than otherwise similar people living in secular nations; (2a) in relatively secular nations, family religiosity strongly shapes children's religious beliefs, while the influence of national religious context is small; (2b) in relatively religious nations family religiosity, although important, has less effect on children's beliefs than does national context; (3) the USA was exceptional, being more religious than other nations at its high level of development, and (4) formerly Communist nations in East-Central Europe were also exceptional, being less devout than Western nations. This paper tests whether these patterns still hold in more recent times. Almost two decades later, the effects of family and national religiosity still hold, and strongly so. But few nations are any longer noticeably exceptional: After adjusting for demographic differences, parents' devoutness, and the strong impact of national context, the USA is only fractionally more devout than comparable nations. East-Central Europe now hardly differs from the West. Poland—as devout as the USA without adjustments—is fractionally less devout than comparable nations after these adjustments. Data are from 38 nations and over 50000 respondents, analyzed by multi-level methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japanese young adults' forms of address for their parents (e.g., Dad) reportedly demonstrate their respect for their parents. Such respect has been linked to young adults' interpersonal attitudes as well as depressive symptoms. Given these relationships, the present study identified possible links between young adults' forms of address for their parents, perceived parent-child relationships, interpersonal attitudes, and depressive symptoms. Participants were 226 Japanese college students. Young adults' disrespectful forms of address for parents were positively correlated with feelings of rejection and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, young adults' disrespectful forms of address for fathers predicted the adults' feelings of rejection and depressive symptoms, although there were no such relationships for disrespectful forms of address for mothers. These findings indicated that young adults' disrespectful forms of address for parents, especially fathers, were linked to their negative interpersonal attitudes and depressive symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined peer attachment (friend attachment and romantic attachment) as potential mediator in the relationship between parental attachment (attachment to mother and father) and life satisfaction in emerging adulthood. The sample comprised 385 Italian emerging-adults aged from 18 to 25 years. The technique of structural equation modeling was applied to investigate the hypothesized model. Results indicated that both parental and peer attachment were positively related to life satisfaction, with romantic attachment being the stronger unique predictor. Further, only romantic attachment wholly mediates the association between attachment to mother and life satisfaction. Findings are reviewed in relation to past research and implications for professional practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Child Justice Act 75 of 2008 makes provision for the diversion of child/adolescent offenders and expects parents to monitor their compliance with diversion orders. This paper examines how parents' experience fulfilling this role, especially against the backdrop of their reduced influence during the adolescent development phase, following a qualitative study undertaken with 12 parents of diverted adolescents in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole. The findings revealed the particular difficulties that parents experienced in monitoring compliance and highlight the specific parental support needs that can be met by social workers and other child justice officials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. Environmental and societal factors are significant determinants of children's initiation to and use of alcohol. Schools are important settings for promoting well-being and substantial resources have been devoted to curriculum-based alcohol programs, but the effects of these in reducing the misuse of alcohol have been modest. Adults can and do consume alcohol at school events when students are present, but there is a dearth of evidence about parents' level of support for the practice. The aim of this study was to examine parents' level of support for the purchase and consumption of alcohol at primary school fundraising events when children are present. Methods. Four hundred seventy-nine Australian parents of children aged 0-12 years participated in an online survey. Logistic regression was used to assess the impact of parent characteristics on the level of agreement with parental purchase and consumption of alcohol at school fundraising events when children are present. Results. The majority of parents (60%) disagreed/strongly disagreed with the practice of adults being able to purchase and consume alcohol at school fundraising events when children were present. The 21% of parents who supported the practice were more likely to be daily smokers and/or have higher (>6) Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test—alcohol consumption scores. Conclusions. Despite the fact that the majority of parents disagree with this practice, published reports suggest that adults' use of alcohol at primary school events is an emerging issue. It is important that school decision-makers are mindful of the financial and educational value of fundraising activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses survey data of college graduates throughout China conducted in 2003 by a Peking University research group and investigates the impact of parents’ educational background on the studies and social activities of their children in college. The empirical results show that parents’ educational background are positively associated with their children’s chances of passing standard English exams and serving as student cadres in college. This study suggests that parents with higher level of education are more capable of cultivating of their children with better personalities and psychological qualities. The educational outcomes of college students are a joint products of the families and schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Purpose -- This chapter investigates how normative beliefs attributed to insecure paid work and care responsibilities affect social understandings of the work--family boundary, and either challenge or reinforce traditional links between gender and moral obligation. Methodology -- Within an interpretive approach and from a gender perspective, I present a discourse analysis of 41 interviews with Italian parents. Findings -- This chapter shows that women in the sample felt forced into blurred boundaries that did not suit their work-family normative beliefs. Men in the sample perceived that they had more boundary control, and they created boundaries that support an innovative fatherhood model. Unlike women, men's boundaries aligned with their desires. Research limitations -- The specific target of respondents prevents empirical comparisons between social classes. Moreover, the cross-level analysis presented is limited: in particular, further investigation is required at the level of organizational cultures. Originality -- The study suggests not only thinking in terms of work--family boundary segmentation and integration but also looking at the normative dimensions which can either enhance or exacerbate perceptions of the work--family interface. The value of the study also stems from its theoretically relevant target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, we investigated the role of childbearing history in later-life health and mortality, paying particular attention to possible differences by sex and region. Higher parity is associated with better self-rated health in West German mothers and fathers aged 50+, but its relationship with East German women's physical health and survival is negative. Early motherhood is paralleled by poorer physical health in West Germany, whereas late motherhood is associated with lower psychological well-being in Eastern Germany. Moreover, among West German women, having had a non-marital first birth is weakly correlated with poorer physical health. Our findings support the notion of biosocial pathways playing an important role in shaping the fertility--health nexus. Specifically, the West German 'male-breadwinner' model of specialization appears to have buffered the stresses associated with childrearing, whereas fertility off the 'normative' life-course track appears to have had adverse effects on women's health in West Germany. Keywords: reproductive history; health; mortality; life course; German Socio-Economic Panel [Submitted December 2009; Final version accepted June 2010] DOI: 10.1080/00324728.2010.506243

Research on the implications of varying measurement strategies for estimating levels and correlates of intimate partner violence (IPV) has been limited. This study explored measurement and correlates of IPV using a community sample of 168 couples who were expecting their first child. In line with prior research, couple agreement regarding the presence of violence was low, and maximum reported estimates revealed substantial IPV perpetrated by both expectant mothers and fathers. Different types of IPV scores predicted unique variance in mental health problems and couple relationship distress among both the whole sample and the subsamples who perpetrated any violence. Discussion focuses on the methodological and substantive implications of these findings for the study of IPV during the transition to parenthood. Keywords: intimate partner violence; measurement; transition to parenthood; violence correlates DOI: 10.1891/0886-6708.25.3.319

We examined parent participation in the context of a going-to-scale implementation trial of the evidence-based, multi-component Early Risers conduct problems prevention program. In this study we examine the participation of parents in two parent/family-focused components of Early Risers that were delivered over 2 years across 21 rural school sites with 155 primarily Caucasian families. One component is a standardized 'Parent Skills' curriculum delivered at participating schools and the second component delivers 'Family Support' via tailored case management services through school and non-school site contacts. The study examines predictors of parent participation for each parent-focused component using multilevel modeling analyses. Previous research is extended by examining parent participation within the context of a going-to-scale trial and by looking at a broader array of child/parent/family and implementation context predictors. Parent participation in Parent Skills is predicted by higher level of parent's frustration in parent-child relationships, while their participation in Family Support is related to lower family income. Implementers with higher previous work experience with children/families and lower education levels, as well as those manifesting more extroverted and less agreeable personality characteristics, elicit more participation in Parent Skills. Greater participation in Family Support is also predicted by lower levels of implementer neuroticism. Finally, implementers who achieve higher quality of delivery fidelity have greater participation in Parent Skills and a lower level of adherence fidelity predicts more participation in Family Support. The results are discussed within the context of going-to-scale service provision and in terms of implications for future prevention efforts. Keywords Parents * Participation * Prevention * Going-to-scale * Conduct problems DOI 10.1007/s10826-009-9277-7

The ability to tell a coherent and rich story about one's personal life is an important marker of an individual's capacity and willingness to contemplate personal change. We review research on correlations between the coherence of parents' narrative accounts of life experiences and their responsiveness during interactions with their children. Based on this review, we explore ideas about the nature of narrative coherence, how parents might be taught to improve this structural feature when telling their stories, and why a well constructed story might enhance the parents' objective study of the here and now. We discuss how the effects of narrative restructuring may enable parents to be more cognitively mindful of their interactions with their children. We present our speculations in the spirit of promoting discussion of new clinical strategies for parents and new research strategies aimed at experimental analyses of observed connections between parent narratives and their willingness to contemplate personal change. Keywords Narrative restructuring therapy * Stages of change * Mindfulness * Contemplation of personal change

The researchers adopted relational dialectics theory (Baxter & Montgomery, 1996) to examine the discourse of 37 bereaved parents. Research questions guiding the study were what dialectical contradictions do bereaved parents experience when communicating with their marital partner after their child's death and how do bereaved parents and their marital partners communicatively negotiate the dialectical contradictions they experience? Our analysis revealed that bereaved parents experienced a dialectical contradiction between trying to grieve their child's death together as a couple and apart as individuals. Likewise, parents experienced a contradiction between being both open and closed when talking with one another about their child's death. Results describe how parents negotiated these contradictions, and implications for professionals are discussed. Keywords: Parental Bereavement; Relational Dialectics Theory; Grieving; Marital Partners

Using daily telephone interviews, 82 midlife parents (mean age = 57.4) of children with disabilities (mean age = 29.9) were compared with a closely matched sample of unaffected parents (N = 82) to elucidate the daily experience of non-normative parenting. In addition, salivary cortisol samples were obtained to examine whether parents of children with disabilities had dysregulated diurnal rhythms and the extent to which the amount of time spent with children was associated with divergent patterns of cortisol expression. We found that parents of children with disabilities had similar patterns of daily time use and similar likelihood of positive daily events as the comparison group, but they had elevated levels of stress, negative affect, and physical symptoms, all reported on a daily basis. In addition, their diurnal rhythm of cortisol expression differed significantly from the comparison group, a pattern that was strongest for parents of children with disabilities on days when they spent more time with their children.

This study investigates the relation of communication around parental multiple sclerosis (MS) to family dysfunction and mental health problems of the children in Greek families. Fifty-six families with a parent [...]

We analyzed family dynamics and coping behaviors of parents with a child with an autistic spectrum disorder. Previous research suggests that moderate levels of cohesion and adaptability are associated with higher levels of positive coping, and that the more coping strategies a family implements, the greater their satisfaction with family functioning. Using a family systems approach, the relationships among the familial variables of cohesion, adaptability, and social support were evaluated for their contributions to coping in the family unit. We also compared the responses of mothers and fathers. Surprisingly, for these parents of children with autism, those who rated their family as enmeshed implemented more positive coping strategies than did those from other cohesion styles. This funding suggests that the enmeshed style may be more adaptive for a family that encounters extreme challenges. Notably, mothers and fathers agreed on all variables except for perception of social support from family and friends. Mothers perceived more social support from family and friends. The results lead to several interesting suggestions for future research. Keywords Autism * Cohesion * Adaptability Coping * Family systems

Using ecological theory and a mixed-methods approach, the authors examined family--court interactions for foster care decisions made in Virginia across three policy periods: 1980 to 1993, 1994 to 1997, and 1997 to present (N = 95). For the first and last policy periods, quantitative analyses revealed significant differences in the rates at which parental rights were terminated. Differences also existed in termination rates for parents with mental health issues and limited IQs but not for parents with substance abuse issues or those with special-needs children. The best-interests-of-the-child standard and clear and convincing evidence were the primary legal principles used to determine whether to terminate parental rights or to reunify families. Suggestions were made to enhance the understanding of family professionals. Keywords: Adoption and Safe Families Act; foster care; parental rights; family policy and law

The effects of parenting children with disabilities and chronic conditions on the long-term health of parents are studied. The mother's health is negatively affected particularly in long-term disabilities and deteriorates relative to the father's.

To test the involvement of primitive defenses in Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS), we collected 158 MMPI-2s from court ordered custody evaluations from 7 forensic psychology practices; 76 were PAS cases and 82 were custody cases without PAS (controls). We used two MMPI-2 indexes to measure primitive defenses: L C K--F and (L C Pa C Sc)--(Hy C Pt). We found that mothers and fathers who were alienators bad higher (clinical range) scores indicating primitive defenses such as splitting and projective identification, than control mothers and fathers (normal range scores) in both our indexes. Target parents were mostly similar to the control parents. The results showed strong support for Gardner's definition of PAS.

High expressed emotion (EE) attitudes among parents are associated with an increased likelihood of relapse among bipolar patients, but the origins of these attitudes are unclear. This study examined characteristics of bipolar disorder in adolescents that might be associated with high EE attitudes among parents. We hypothesized that an earlier onset of mood disorder and greater current illness severity would predict higher levels of criticism and emotional overinvolvement among parents. Demographic, diagnostic, and EE data were collected from interviews with parents of 44 bipolar adolescents (mean age 14.5 yrs.). Current illness severity and functioning were not associated with high-EE attitudes. Parents of girls, however, were more likely to be high in criticism than parents of boys. Parents of girls expressed more critical comments when the child had an adolescent compared to a childhood onset of bipolar disorder, whereas the reverse pattern was evident among parents of boys. We encourage prospective investigations of the developmental correlates of parental EE attitudes in larger, more heterogeneous samples of bipolar adolescents and

A longitudinal study was conducted among bereaved parents to examine the relationship between the circumstances surrounding the death of their child and psychological adjustment. Two hundred nineteen couples participated at 6, 13, and 20 months post-loss. Examination was made of two categories of factors: those that were determined by the particular death circumstances (e.g., whether the parent was present at the death) versus those over which parents themselves could have influence (e.g., choice of cremation or burial). Results indicated that some but not all factors were related to adjustment over time. Importantly, the feeling of having said goodbye to the child and presenting the body for viewing at home were associated with lower levels of the parents' grief. Implications for supporting bereaved parents are discussed.

Objectives: To: (1) determine the strength of the relationship between risk of child disability and parental mental health in a nationally representative sample of Australian families with young children; (2) estimate the contribution of distress among parents of children at risk of disability to overall parental psychiatric morbidity; and (3) explore the extent to which between-group differences in parental mental health may be attributable to differences in exposure to other risk factors. Method: Secondary analysis of crosssectional data collected in Wave 1 of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (n=4,983; 6.5% of children identified as being at risk of disability). Results: Elevated rates of psychological distress indicative of serious mental illness were found among mothers (OR=5.1, 95% CL 3.5-7.6), but not fathers (OR=1.4, 95% CL 0.5-3.4) of children at risk of disability. Psychological distress among mothers of children at risk of disability accounted for 23% of estimated total maternal psychiatric morbidity. Approximately 50% of the elevated risk of distress for mothers was accounted for by increased rates of poverty among children at risk of disability and their families, an association possibly mediated by increased exposure to adverse life events, poorer maternal health and reduced personal-social capital. Conclusions: The association between risk of child disability and maternal mental health is strongly confounded by increased rates of poverty among children at risk of disability. Any residual risk appears to be related to the poorer social, emotional and behavioural development of children at risk of disability. Social and health policy responses need to focus on poverty reduction, enhancing the personal social capital of mothers living in poverty and on improving the social, emotional and behavioural development of the children. Key words: Mental disorders; disabled children; poverty; maternal health; social support; life change events. doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.2008.00166 .x

The issue of parents having no opportunity to choose the language for their children's instruction in schools if their native language was not predominant in the area where they live is discussed. The sociocultural variables that influence Russian-speaking parents living in Estonia to choose Estonian, Russian or bilingual instruction for their children is described.

Byline: Gary Neil Marks (1) Keywords: Mother's education; Mother's occupation; Socioeconomic inequalities; Student achievement; Cross-national comparisons; PISA Abstract: Since the early 1970s the importance of mothers' socioeconomic characteristics on their children's educational and occupational attainment has been acknowledged. However, it is not clear if fathers' characteristics have a stronger influence because men usually have stronger attachments to the labour market, or alternatively mothers' characteristics are more important because of their greater role in children's socialization. This study addresses this question by comparing the influence of father's and mother's education and occupation on student performance in literacy and numeracy using data from 30 countries. The impact of mother's education is usually greater or comparable to that of father's education. In contrast, substantially stronger effects for mother's occupational status compared to father's were rare. In most countries the impact of mother's socioeconomic characteristics (education plus occupation) on student performance is comparable to that for father's. Of the four indicators of socioeconomic background, father's occupational status and mother's educational attainment tend to have stronger effects, although many countries do not conform to this pattern. There are indications that the relative importance of mother's characteristics have increased over time. Author Affiliation: (1) Melbourne Institute for Applied Economic and Social Research, University of Melbourne, Level 7 161 Barry Street, Melbourne, Victoria, 3124, Australia Article History: Registration Date: 25/04/2007 Received Date: 10/04/2006 Accepted Date: 25/04/2007 Online Date: 23/05/2007

The author discusses the development and determination of parental recognition and responsibility within the youth justice system (YJS) in England and Wales. Topics include the Beijing Rules which state the age limit for juvenile status depending on each legal system, the Crime and Disorder Act (CDA) of 1998 and the Children and Young Persons Act (CYPA) of 1933, and the unqualified provisions for children and young persons (CYPs).