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Smart buildings， as prosumers， not only facilitate the local consumption of renewable energy sources （RES） but also coordinate internal flexible loads to reduce electricity consumption costs through peer-to-peer （P2P） electrical energy transactions. Based on this， the paper analyzes wind-photovoltaic （WPV） resources and flexible loads in smart buildings and proposes a P2P optimal scheduling strategy that incorporates joint transactions of electricity and regulation capacity. Initially， flexible load adjustments are used to provide regulation capacity， eliminating the prediction deviations of WPV outputs. Subsequently， the paper introduces a combined transaction mechanism for electricity and regulation capacity， where both electricity and regulation capacity are traded as market commodities in P2P transactions. Finally， case studies are conducted to analyze the proposed method and model. The results demonstrate that the proposed model not only effectively increases the local consumption of WPV but also encourages market participants to actively engage in P2P transactions.

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Recently, the generalization of P2P (peer-to-peer) technology with enhanced security due to blockchain technology and the expansion of renewable energy-based distributed energy resources have led to blockchain technology being applied in power transactions, thus giving the potential to become a new platform for DC microgrid operation. Meanwhile, the voltage of a DC microgrid represents the balance of energy supply and demand and also serves as a stability index. The balance is represented as a steady state; the stability is represented during and after events. This paper examines the stability of the DC microgrid built on a university campus in Korea and, in particular, the blockchain technology-based power transactions performed in the DC microgrid. The test is based on the pre-planned transaction schedule applied in the DC microgrid. The transaction schedule has used day-ahead and real-time bidding data. Although many technologies are included in the project, this paper focuses on the voltage stability of the DC microgrid. In addition, the DC protection is applied and evaluated. To consider general DC protection, the DC breaker was simplified with several IGBTs, diodes, capacitors, and arrestors and was designed to interrupt the fault current within five milliseconds. The stability was evaluated using a PSCAD/EMTDCTM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid development and technological innovation in the energy market, peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading, as a decentralised and efficient trading model, has been widely studied and practically applied. However, in P2P energy transactions involving multiple prosumers, there are challenges such as information asymmetry, trust issues, and transaction transparency. To address these challenges, blockchain technology, as a distributed ledger technology, provides solutions. In this paper, we propose a blockchain technology-based prosumer–virtual power plant (VPP) two-tier interactive energy management framework to assist P2P energy transactions between multiple prosumers. In this framework, the virtual power plant acts as a leader and sets differentiated tariffs for different prosumers to equal the distribution of social welfare. The various prosumers act as followers and respond to the leader's decisions in a cooperative manner. Blockchain's immutability and transparency enable prosumers to participate in P2P energy trading with greater trust, share idle energy, and share revenues based on contribution. In addition, given the uncertainty of renewable energy, this paper employs a stochastic planning approach with conditional value at risk (CVaR) to describe the expected loss of VPP. Ultimately, as verified by the arithmetic simulation, the blockchain co-governance transaction model effectively supports energy coordination and optimization of complementarities while ensuring the utility of each transaction node. This model promotes the application of renewable energy in local consumption, while facilitating the innovation and sustainable development of the energy market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract It is a critical part of increasing renewable energy accommodation by using virtual power plant (VPP) to attain carbon neutrality. However, VPP applications primarily consider VPP's participation in power market transactions as a whole and rarely consider the transaction interaction between internal resources. VPP's internal resources complement each other organically, and blockchain technology for distributed transactions has incorporated points. In this article, the authors undertake a study and examine the P2P scenario of VPP internal transactions in light of the issues experienced by DERs transactions. Next, the authors analyse the consensus mechanism, smart contract, inter‐blockchain technology, and game theory, and how to apply them in the P2P scenarios of VPP internal transactions. Further, the authors design the function of the DER transaction system, which lays the foundation for the realisation of the system in the future. Finally, the authors conclude that the potential of blockchain technology in P2P transactions between internal entities of the VPP is significant and warrants further investigation.

In this paper, we aim to provide a power trade system that will promote a sustainable electrical energy transaction ecosystem between prosumers and consumers of smart homes. We suggest a blockchain-based peer-to-peer (P2P) energy transaction platform be implemented to enable efficient electrical energy transaction between prosumers. We suggest the platform be built on the blockchain, as this technology allows a decentralized and distributed trading system, and allows a more transparent, trustworthy and secure P2P trading environment. We believe that such characteristics of the blockchain are necessary in electrical energy transactions within the smart home environment because the smart home aims to enhance user comfort and security, along with energy conservation and cost-savings. First, we classify the two different types of P2P trade to identify which will best benefit from the use of the suggested blockchain-based P2P energy-transaction platform. Within the two types of P2P trade, that we classify (pure P2P trade and hybrid P2P trade), the hybrid P2P trade will benefit more from a blockchain-based P2P energy-transaction platform. In the blockchain-based P2P energy-transaction platform, a smart contract is embedded in the blockchain and called an energy tag. The energy tag will set conditions for making every future energy transaction more cost-efficient while maintaining the most ideal and high-quality energy selection. With the blockchain-based energy tag in the energy-transaction process, multiple energy resources and home appliances will be democratically connected in order to provide users with high-quality, low-cost energy at all times and locations. In this paper, we provide simulation results that compare the unit price of electrical energy on the suggested platform to the unit price of electrical energy set by currently existing conventional power-generation companies. Additionally, we present simulation results that calculate how long initial investments to create a smart home environment that enables P2P energy transactions will take to be paid back. Based on simulation results, we believe that, in the long run, the suggested blockchain-based P2P energy-transaction platform will create a sustainable energy-transaction environment between consumers and prosumers, and the expanding ecosystem will enable the development of a trusted, sustainable, secure and energy-efficient energy transaction environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A multi-agent electricity-heat-hydrogen P2P trading optimization model is proposed. • Hydrogen is involved in P2P transactions and used for natural gas blending. • The multi-energy trading power and trading price are obtained based on Nash bargaining. • The bargaining cooperative interaction can benefit each agent simultaneously. The P2P transaction mode has significant potential in improving energy utilization, increasing economic efficiency, and promoting low carbon operation of the system. With the development of integrated energy system, the coupling between multi-energy systems is continuously strengthened, and the study of multi-energy P2P transactions is of great significance. Considering the characteristic that natural gas can blend with hydrogen, this paper proposes a multi-agent electricity-heat-hydrogen trading model by taking hydrogen produced on the load side as a P2P transaction object. Based on Nash bargaining theory, the multi-energy transactions model is equivalent to a cooperative game model. Then, the Nash bargaining model is transformed into two continuous subproblems of minimizing operating cost and maximizing transaction payment. The optimal cost of each agent operating independently is used as the negotiation rupture point, and the alternating direction multiplier method is used for sequential solution to obtain the multi-energy trading power and trading price, respectively. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed method is verified by using the distribution network IEEE 33-bus and natural gas 11 node systems. The results show that the revenue of subject 1 is increased by 11.9%, and the operating costs of the other subjects are reduced by 3.4%, 2.7% and 3.1%, respectively. The overall carbon tax cost of the system is reduced by 1 196.59 CNY, which can effectively reduce the carbon emission of the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Distributed optimization techniques can respect privacy of customers' data and also solve the scalability issue of central optimization problems. • Enabling prosumers to trade in P2P transactions can help them to value their excess of energy properly. • Participation of prosumers in P2P transactions can reduce their total financial cost and their dependency on importing energy from external grid. • The presence of orchestrator in the future distribution networks can avoid violation of network constraints when P2P transactions are available. Electric distribution systems are becoming bidirectional and active due to rise of distributed energy resources, electric vehicles and prosumers. In this environment, a transactive energy system is required to not only coordinate the network with respect to the technical constraints, but also model P2P transactions between end-users, taking into account their data privacy and scalability issues. Therefore, a new two-stage transactive energy system is developed to balance the distribution network considering the behavior of different participants. At stage one, the role of orchestrator is modeled to manage the distribution network and its constraints by purchasing energy from up-stream grid, defining dynamic distribution locational marginal prices (DLMPs) or tapping on its storages. At stage two, prosumers make distributed decisions to use grid-sourced/self-generated energy or participate in P2P transactions based on the received DLMPs from stage one and their preferences. This two stage mechanism is solved through an iterative process until stopping criteria are met. The results indicate reduction in total import cost and energy from grid, compared to when no P2P transaction is considered. It is also shown that the proposed model converges to the optimal solution in proper time when the number of participants is increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Provide a transactive based energy management framework for energy hub, integrated with multiple energy carriers. • Propose a decentralized P2P transaction platform for the coordination of networked energy hubs. • A generic analytical procedure is established for EH to trace energy-price flow at each operation step. The coupled multiple energy carriers integrated with distributed energy units, e.g., energy converters, renewable energy, and storages have offered energy hubs high flexibility and independent controllability. In this paper, a decentralized transactive based energy management framework enabling coordination among multiple energy hubs (MEHs) is developed. Aiming to improve the economic performance of the interconnected energy hub system, a peer to peer (P2P) transaction platform is established for the self-organized trading of MEH. Particularly, a generic scheme for the generation of transaction prices is specified for the energy hub, which is firstly integrated into a modified alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM) method for the realization of achieving P2P transaction consensus amongst MEHs. Furthermore, this price scheme offers high traceability of energy-price flows inner EHs operation process and external energy transaction activities, providing transparent price signals in the local P2P market. A three-energy hub system is simulated, and numerical case studies have demonstrated the proposed coordination scheme actively encourages individual EH to enroll in the P2P transaction scheme, offering all EHs a win-win transaction framework and improving the global economic efficiency of the networked system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]