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There is a need to evaluate the different dietary levels of CP and ME needed by the hen and the time sequence during the molt period to feed these levels to simulate a molt similar to that of nature by utilizing full feeding molting procedures. This study was undertaken to determine that nutritional sequence information. The 4-d feed withdrawal molt procedure being used commercially was used to compare the effects of the 3 procedures studied. Very low levels of CP and ME (9.72% CP and 1,103 kcal or 9.72% CP and 1,433 kcal) were fed for 2, 3, and 4 wk to mimic the levels of nutrients consumed by hens during the first 4 wk of the 4-d molt procedure. The equivalent of zero egg production (≤0.3%) was achieved during wk 2, 3, and 4 of the study (postmolt initiation). The hens achieved 50% production during wk 7 postmolt and peak production, 6 to 8 points below the first cycle, occurred during wk 11 of the study. Body weight reduction ranged from 20 to 29%. The lowest energy level fed for 4 wk was not a desirable molting procedure. Full-fed molting procedures resulted in a significant but acceptable increase in cost of feed over the 4-d procedure.

There is a need to evaluate the position paper and guidelines set forth by the United Egg Producers (Washington, DC) and the American Veterinary Medical Association (Schaumburg, IL) on feeding practices and nutrient levels provided during a molt. This pilot study was undertaken to learn if a complete cessation of lay could be achieved with daily feeding while using an alternate morning and evening feeding schedule. This was an effort to mimic the fast that a bird experiences in a natural setting. The hens were fed the amount they would eat in 4 h during the morning one day and again the evening of the next day. Some hens ceased production in the third week and others in the fourth week, with zero production for all hens occurring during the fifth week. The return to 50% egg production was achieved from wk 7 to 8. Peak egg production occurred from the eleventh to twelfth weeks postmolt, reaching a level only 5 to 6 percentage points below the first cycle. This feeding protocol resulted in complete cessation of lay, allowing for a more uniform and complete restoration of the ovarian and oviductal tissues. This restoration is necessary for an effective economical postmolt period of egg production.

The effects of dietary boron on bone ash content and on the ultimate shear force, stress, and fracture energy of the tibia, femur, humerus, and radius from white Leghorn pullets were investigated. There was a significant increase in the shear force of the tibia and femur for pullets supplemented with 50 and 100 mg/kg of dietary boron. There was a significant increase in the shear stress of the tibia at 50 and 100 mg/kg of boron, and also an increase in shear fracture energy at 50 and 100 mg/kg boron for the femur. Tibia bone ash content increased significantly at 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg boron with the highest value at 50 mg/kg. Even though there was not a significant increase in body wt at 50 and 100 mg/kg boron, the pullets fed these supplements were consistently heavier than the control group.

The effects of dietary boron on the ultimate shear force, shear stress, and shear fracture energy of the tibia, humerus, and radius from White Leghorn layers were investigated. The shear force, stress, and fracture energy of the bones were not affected by increasing levels of dietary boron during the last four weeks of egg production. The quantity of boron in meat and bone tissue samples increased with increasing levels of boron. The liver from birds fed 56 mg/kg boron contained 3.3 times more boron than the control birds, the breast 1.8 times, the thigh 2.7 times, and the bone tissue 2.4 times. The results suggest that it may be possible to add another marketing dimension to poultry products using boron as an additive for elderly people needing to combat brittle bones.

Ophyra aenescens (Weidemann), a facultative predator, was mass reared at a commercial egg farm and released into the manure pits of six high rise controlled environment cage layer poultry houses as part of a four year/five phase integrated pest management (IPM) program to control house flies. The phases included: 1) monitoring house flies in each house to determine when the house fly population exceeded a fly nuisance threshold (FNT); 2) manure management; 3) release of mass reared predators; 4) use of insecticide bait panels containing 1% methomyl; and 5) treatment of feed with cyromazine if the FNT was exceeded. The IPM program was implemented from April 1987 to September 1990. It was compared to a standard control program used in 1986, in which synergized pyrethrin sprays, fly baits and cyromazine feed additives were applied to four houses. The cost of this latter program was $15,689.63. the cost of the IPM program was $3,082.10 per year for all six houses. It was concluded that on site mass rearing of O. aenescens was a feasible and economical program to help control house flies in commercial high rise poultry houses.

Commercial equipment used by the turkey industry at hatch sterilizes the germinal tissue of the claw with microwave energy and the beak tissue with infrared energy. This effectively trims the claws and beaks of the birds. Two strains of Leghorn chicks (1,200 each strain) were utilized to test this technique on chickens. Half were subjected to the claw reduction (RC) technique at hatch, and half retained intact claws (IC). The beaks of one-third of the birds in the claw treatments were reduced (BT) at hatch using the infrared technique, one-third were precision trimmed at 7 d, and one-third were not trimmed (IB). Body weight, weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion, mortality, and fearfulness were measured. Rearing followed standard commercial feeding and husbandry procedures. The RC birds had significantly lower BW, except from 3 to 6 wk, and had significantly lower feed consumption from 8 to 18 wk. The 1 d BT birds experienced significantly lower BW from 3 to 14 wk and ate less total feed by 4 wk. Mortality was less than 2.1% for all treatments. From 6 to 8 wk, fearfulness score (a subjective scale of 1 to 10) peaked at 8 to 10 for IC birds and 3 to 4 for RC birds. By 16 to 18 wk, fearfulness score subsided to 2 to 3 for RC and 6 to 8 for IC. Beak trimming and reduction of claw growth at hatch allowed pullets to be grown to sexual maturity on less feed and with a lower level of observed fearfulness using standard husbandry practices.

The effects of dietary nickel (0, 25, 50, 75, 100, and 150 mg/kg) on growth performance parameters and bone strength characteristics of female broiler chicks were investigated. Broilers were housed in either cages or floor pens. At 7 weeks of age, the shear force, stress, and fracture energy of the tibia and radius for both the floor and caged birds all increased but not statistically when the basal diet was supplemented with 25 milligram of dietary nickel per kilogram of feed (mg/kg). Dietary nickel had no effect on bird body weight, but the caged broilers (2420 g) were heavier than the floor birds (2128 g). Percent tibia bone ash, a measure of bone density, was not influenced by dietary nickel, but the tibia ash of the floor birds (40.1%) was greater than that of the caged birds (36.4%). Overall, the data suggest that there is an optimum amount of dietary nickel, near 25 mg/kg, that will have a positive influence on bone strength characteristics and performance of female broilers.

The effects of dietary nickel (0, 25, 50, 75, 100, and 150 mg/kg) on the bone strength characteristics and performance parameters of male broilers were investigated. Broilers were housed in either cages or floor pens. At 6 wk of age, the shear fracture energy of the tibia from the caged birds increased when the basal diet was supplemented with 25 mg of dietary nickel per kilogram of feed. The shear force, stress, and fracture energy of the radius from the caged birds also increased at 25 mg/kg nickel. Dietary nickel had no effect on bird body weight, but the caged broilers (2,161 g) were heavier than the floor birds (2,005 g). Nickel had no effect on the strength characteristics of the tibia from the floor birds. Percent tibia bone ash, a measure of bone density, was not influenced by dietary nickel, but the tibia ash of the floor birds was greater than that of the caged birds. Overall, the data indicates that adding 25 mg/kg of dietary nickel to a poultry diet will have a positive influence on bone strength characteristics and performance.

There have been many methods proposed to induce molting. Some worked very well in practice, but others were detrimental to the health and welfare of the hens. The most effective methods use some level of feed restriction and daylength manipulation to reduce body weight (Hansen, 1966; Ruszler, 1974, 1984, 1996; Swanson and Bell, 1974; Brake and Carey, 1983). Weight reduction is necessary for rest and rejuvenation of body tissues. Other methods evaluated incorporated dietary imbalances using either zinc, iodine, or sodium. Pharmaceuticals have been used but have not been cost effective. In recent years there have been those who question whether molting techniques are humane. Therefore, interest has been heightened in alternate methods to induce molting. Research reported to date has been inadequate to accurately determine which methods of induced molting are the least stressful, if they in fact, cause any more stress than that experienced by the hen during a natural molt. The three or four most highly refined methods being used commercially are not generally detrimental to the health and welfare of today's laying hen, provided that they are managed in accordance with proper husbandry practices.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of claw removal and cage design in laying hens during the course of a normal egg production period. Claw removal and cage design had significant effects on various production parameters as well as gonadal and adrenal steroids in caged laying hens. Declawed hens showed a significantly greater intensity of early egg production. They tended to consume less feed, weighed significantly less, and had significantly better livabiltiy than the intact controls. Furthermore, declawed hens demonstrated lower plasma corticosterone and higher plasma estradiol levels during the latter phases of the laying period. However, during the latter stages of the egg production cycle, foot condition was significantly poorer in declawed hens. No significant treatment effects were noted for overall egg production, egg weight, specific gravity, antibody response, or feather condition. Hens in low profile cages consumed significantly less feed than those in the high profile cages during the earlier stages of production, but this difference disappeared after 30 weeks of age. No significant cage effect was noted for overall egg production, egg weight, specific gravity, antibody response, or feather condition. Significantly lower plasma corticosterone concentrations were seen in the hens maintained in low profile cages during the latter stages of the production period.

The influence of dietary protein changes on growth from 0 to 20 weeks of age and on egg production from 20 to 72 weeks of age was studied with a commercial strain of White Leghorn chickens. Eight dietary treatments were compared to evaluate two aspects of step-up protein regimens for egg-type pullets: 1) the crude protein (CP) level fed the initial week, and 2) the duration of feeding the 12% CP diet. Treatment 1 served as the control regimen and consisted of feeding 18, 15, and 12% CP diets to 6, 14, and 20 weeks of age, respectively. The percent CP with the respective weeks fed (in parentheses) for Treatments 2 through 8 were as follows: Treatment 2, 18% (0 to 1), 12% (1 to 8), 15% (8 to 14), and 18% (14 to 20); Treatment 3, 18% (0 to 1), 12% (1 to 10), 15% (10 to 16), and 18% (16 to 20); Treatment 4, 18% (0 to 1), 12% (1 to 12), 15% (12 to 16), and 18% (16 to 20); Treatment 5, 16% (0 to 1), 12% (1 t o 10), 15% (10 to 16), and 18% (16 to 20); Treatment 6, 16% (0 to 1), 12% (1 to 12), 15% (12 to 16), and 18% (16 to 20); Treatment 7, 20% (0 to 1), 12% (1 to 10), 15% (10 to 16), and 18% (16 to 20); and Treatment 8, 20% (0 to 1), 12% (1 to 12), 15% (12 to 16), and 18% (16 to 20). All diets were fed ad libitum. At 20 weeks of age, 72 birds from each treatment were housed in laying cages for 52 weeks of egg production. Cumulative feed intake through 20 weeks of age for birds reared on Treatments 2 through 8 was generally less than that of the control birds. Birds reared on Treatments 4 and 8 consumed significantly less protein than the control birds. By 20 weeks of age, average body weights for Treatments 2 through 8 were 4.0, 6.0, 7.6, 4.3, 2.7, 4.6, and 7.6% lighter, respectively, and significantly different from that of the control birds. Dietary treatment did not influence mortality during the growing period. By 28 weeks of age, there were no significant body weight differences among any of the treatments. Age at 50% production, hen-day production, livability, egg weight, percentage egg size, shell deformation, Haugh score, feed per hen-day, and feed per dozen eggs also did not differ significantly among any treatments. Results of this study indicate that feeding a 16 to 20% CP diet for the 1st week of life, followed by a 12% CP diet through 8 to 12 weeks of age, 15% CP to 16 weeks, and 18% CP to 20 weeks of age, produced smaller birds at 20 weeks of age with less total feed intake than the control birds. None of the egg production parameters studied were significantly affected.

Two trials of 336 days each were run one year apart using a commercial strain of incrossbred pullets housed at 22 weeks with flock sizes of 7 and 10 birds per cage at a density of 290 cm2 /bird. The toenails were removed from the front toes of half of each flock with a hotblade debeaker at 23 weeks of age. These trials were undertaken to learn if removing the toenails near the time of housing would prevent the onset of hysteria later. No hysteria developed in either trial among either the declawed or the intact birds. However, it was determined that declawing significantly improved livability (2.0%) in Trial 2, but not in Trial 1, and reflected a significant improvement (1.7%) in hen-housed production. The percent large eggs was significantly depressed by declawiing (2.1 and 3.7% in Trials 1 and 2, respectively) while income per square foot (929 cm2) was increased. Increasing the flock size per cage from 7 to 10 birds resulted in a depression of hen-housed production, percent large eggs, and income over feed and chick costs in both trials. Several highly significant interactions occurring between treatment and flock size changes are discussed. 1979 Poultry Science 58:778-784

The phenological events occurring in various types of insulation during infestation by Alphitobius diaperinus were studied under laboratory conditions. Late instar larval A. diaperinus initiated tunneling behavior into polystyrene insulation. Adult female beetles utilized the surface of the polystyrene panels as oviposition sites, but early instar larvae left the panels soon after hatching. Within 20 days after placing the panels into laboratory colonies, large numbers of adults moved from the media into the polystyrene expanding the tunnels. Concurrently, the number of late instar larvae recovered from the insulation declined. No oviposition occurred within the tunnels. Few middle instar larvae were present in the polystyrene. All lifestages of A. diaperinus invaded exposed fiberglass, but invading late instar larvae did not pupate successfully. Polystyrene seemed to be preferred by late instar larvae over polyurethane for pupation sites, but polyurethane was favored over polystyrene by ovipositing beetles. The insulative capacity of polystyrene was reduced as a result of lesser mealworm infestation.

The usefulness of peanut shells, pine bark, ground cobs, wood shavings, and cane pomace as litter materials in roaster production was evaluated under laboratory and growing house conditions. All five materials differed significantly in the amount and rate of moisture exchange. Cane absorbed the largest amount of moisture per unit of dry weight followed by shavings, cobs, shells, and bark. Moisture evaporated per unit of dry weight was highest in peanut shells followed by shavings, bark, cane, and cobs. When compared by grams of moisture absorbed per hour, cobs were followed by cane, bark, shavings, and shells. Particle size of bark and shells averaged about 30 percent less than the others throughout the study in the growing house. Shells and cobs underwent significantly greater percent reduction in particle size. The smaller particle sized materials absorbed less total moisture and released it faster under drying conditions in both the growing house and under laboratory tests. Certain laboratory tests will indicate the possible usefulness of a material for poultry litter prior to rearing birds on it.

Five hundred seventy-six Single Comb White Leghorn pullets were divided into three body size categories at 20 weeks of age and assigned to laying cages for a 52-week production period. Average body weight of the heavy, medium, and light size groups were 1377, 1256, and 1131 g, respectively. Size of bird did not affect age at 50% production, hen-day or hen-housed production. Livability of the heavy birds was significantly lower (16.2 and 15.6%) than livability of the medium and light birds, respectively. Body weight differences at 20 weeks of age continued through 72 weeks of age. Heavy birds produced heavier eggs, consumed more feed per hen day, and consumed more feed per dozen eggs than the medium and light birds, while the medium birds had greater means than the light birds for each of these categories. The heavy birds also consumed 3.66% more feed/g egg mass than the light birds. The results of this experiment indicate that chickens can produce at lighter body weights than in the past, therefore, nutritional programs which produce lighter pullets may be desirable.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of claw removal on young pullets grown in wire cages. Body weight, feed consumption, stress response, and gonadal steroid data were collected to assess the effects of claw removal on growing pullets. Claw removal posed an initial physiological insult upon chicks that resulted in a reduction in body weight gain and reduced feed consumption during the early grow-out period. However, by 20 weeks of age there were no significant differences between the body weights of intact and declawed pullets. No significant differences in plasma corticosterone, progesterone, or estradiol were observed, nor were there any significant differences in mortality or antibody response during the course of the 20-week study. Nevertheless, several declawed pullets demonstrated relatively precocious egg laying, suggesting that claw removal enhanced sexual maturity.

The relationship between types of contruction of high rise caged layer houses and insulation damage produced by the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer), was examined. There were no infestations in polyurethane insulation that had heavy weight paper glued to the surface of the insulation and installed with tape to seal off the seam between insulation boards. High rise houses with pit walls constructed of concrete block had lower insulation infestations than houses with wooden walls forming the pits. Houses that had pit wall foundations built of both types of materials had intermediate lesser mealworm infestations. Houses with the support structure set on top of the concrete block pit wall had lower infestations than houses where the support structure was set directly into the earth. There was a reduced gradient of damage with height of insulation above the pit; insulation installed in the pit was the most severely infested. Extruded polystyrene insulation exposed to 10 years or more of lesser mealworm infestation suffered a substantial loss of volume in the corner area of the insulation panels, resulting in a 9.1 to 30.8% reduction from an original volume of 84,838 cm3. Additionally, there was a significant reduction in R-value of infested insulation.

Effects of sequential changes in dietary protein on growth from 0 to 20 weeks of age and on egg production from 20 to 72 weeks of age were evaluated with White Leghorn chickens. Four dietary treatments were compared. They consisted of three dietary regimens wherein an 18% crude protein (CP) diet was fed to 1, 2, or 3 weeks of age (Treatments 1, 2, and 3, respectively) and then common 12, 15, and 18% CP diets to 8, 14, and 20 weeks, respectively. These three regimens were compared with a control regimen (Treatment 4) that consisted of feeding 18, 15, and 12% CP diets to 6, 14, and 20 weeks of age, respectively. At 20 weeks of age, 144 birds from each treatment were moved into laying cages for the subsequent 52 weeks of egg production. In comparison with birds on the control feeding regimen, those reared under Treatments 1, 2, and 3 consumed significantly less feed during the 20-week growing period. Birds of Treatments 2 and 3 consumed significantly more protein than those of Treatments 1 and 4. By feeding a 12% CP diet from 1, 2, and 3 to 8 weeks of age, body weights were significantly lower than the average body weight of the control birds, approximately 20, 17, and 13%, respectively, by 6 weeks of age, but only 2 to 4% at 16 weeks of age, and by nonsignificant amounts at 28 weeks of age. Treatment 1 birds consumed 1.8% (significantly) less feed per unit body weight and were 2.6% (significantly) lighter at 20 weeks of age compared with the control birds.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Observations were made on the effect of manure moisture and high rise caged layer house manure pit wall construction on adult and larval lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) dispersal behavior. Larvae preferred to remain in manure habitats of 30 and 40% moisture, and dispersal from the manure significantly increased when manure moisture was increased to 50 and 60% levels. Adults were more active than larvae in the 30 and 40% manure moisture treatments, and the adult rate of dispersal also significantly increased with increased manure moisture levels. Larvae could climb a significantly greater distance up a vertical wooden surface than up a vertical concrete block surface. These data suggest that high rise houses built with wood pit walls and support beams that are set directly into the ground are predisposed to greater levels of insulation damage than houses built with concrete block foundations.

A simple quantitative method (moving sticky tape) to monitor house fly populations in commercial caged layer houses was described and compared with a standard monitoring (spot card) method routinely used in egg houses. Numbers of flies counted by the sticky tape method were highly correlated (.78, P = .005) with those obtained with the spot card method. The moving sticky tape method is quicker and easier to use than the spot card method. The moving sticky tape method has been used satisfactorily since 1985 by the authors and cooperating service managers of commercial caged layer houses to monitor house flies in integrated pest management programs. A fixed sticky tape method was also compared with the spot card method; there was no significant correlation between the numbers of flies counted by these two methods.

Effects of sequential changes in dietary protein on growth from 0 to 20 weeks of age and on egg production from 20 to 72 weeks of age were evaluated with White Leghorn chickens. Four dietary treatments were compared. They consisted of three dietary regimens wherein an 18% crude protein (CP) diet was fed to 1, 2, or 3 weeks of age (Treatments 1, 2, and 3, respectively) and then common 12, 15, and 18% CP diets to 8, 14, and 20 weeks, respectively. These three regimens were compared with a control regimen (Treatment 4) that consisted of feeding 18, 15, and 12% CP diets to 6, 14, and 20 weeks of age, respectively. At 20 weeks of age, 144 birds from each treatment were moved into laying cages for the subsequent 52 weeks of egg production. In comparison with birds on the control feeding regimen, those reared under Treatments 1, 2, and 3 consumed significantly less feed during the 20-week growing period. Birds of Treatments 2 and 3 consumed significantly more protein than those of Treatments 1 and 4. By feeding a 12% CP diet from 1, 2, and 3 to 8 weeks of age, body weights were significantly lower than the average body weight of the control birds, approximately 20, 17, and 13%, respectively, by 6 weeks of age, but only 2 to 4% at 16 weeks of age, and by nonsignificant amounts at 28 weeks of age. Treatment 1 birds consumed 1.8% (significantly) less feed per unit body weight and were 2.6% (significantly) lighter at 20 weeks of age compared with the control birds.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

A simple quantitative method (moving sticky tape) to monitor house fly populations in commercial caged layer houses was described and compared with a standard monitoring (spot card) method routinely used in egg houses. Numbers of flies counted by the sticky tape method were highly correlated (.78, P = .005) with those obtained with the spot card method. The moving sticky tape method is quicker and easier to use than the spot card method. The moving sticky tape method has been used satisfactorily since 1985 by the authors and cooperating service managers of commercial caged layer houses to monitor house flies in integrated pest management programs. A fixed sticky tape method was also compared with the spot card method; there was no significant correlation between the numbers of flies counted by these two methods.