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Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) are being introduced with high levels of autonomy. This means that not only the role of the human operator is changing but also the way in which operations are performed. MASS are expected to be un-crewed platforms that are operated from a Remote Control Centre (RCC). As such, the concept of human-machine teams is important. The operation of MASS however shares some resemblance to other un-crewed platforms (e.g. Un-crewed Aerial Vehicles; UAVs) and it may be that lessons could be learned in relation to the development of MASS systems. A systematic literature review has been conducted, focusing on decision making, to generate insights into operating un-crewed vehicle platforms and design recommendations for MASS. Seven themes were revealed: decision support systems, trust, transparency, teams, task/role allocation, accountability and situation awareness. A Network Model was developed to show the interconnections between these themes which was then applied to a case study of an UAV accident. The purpose of doing this was to demonstrate the utility of the model to real-world scenarios and showed how each theme applied within the human-machine team.

This state of the science review brings together the disparate literature of effective strategies for enhancing and accelerating team performance. The review evaluates and synthesises models and proposes recommended avenues for future research. The two major models of the Input-Mediator-Output-Input (IMOI) framework and the Big Five dimensions of teamwork were reviewed and both will need significant development for application to future teams comprising non-human agents. Research suggests that a multi-method approach is appropriate for team measurements, such as the integration of methods from self-report, observer ratings, event-based measurement and automated recordings. Simulations are recommended as the most effective team-based training interventions. The impact of new technology and autonomous agents is discussed with respect to the changing nature of teamwork. In particular, whether existing teamwork models and measures are suitable to support the design, operation and evaluation of human-nonhuman teams of the future.

Driving is an everyday activity but also brings a substantial risk. Driver state monitoring is a potential method to alleviate such risk by detecting unsafe driver states. Monitoring systems can in...

Previous research has shown that co-location of operators dependent on each other for task-relevant information can relieve the previously identified bottleneck of information between the Sonar Control (SOC) and Operations Officer (OPSO) in submarine sound and control rooms. This research aimed to examine the impact of a novel inwards facing circular configuration on communications and tasks within a co-located control room. Ten teams participated in high and low demand Return to Periscope Depth scenarios in a simulated submarine control room. All communications between operators were recorded and compared with a baseline study of contemporary operation. The findings show that the novel circular configuration led to a reduction in communications, but an increase in information shared. Indicating that the teams had become more efficient at passing relevant information. Furthermore, teams were able to complete a greater number of tasks.

Automation offers the potential to mitigate or reduce the risks related to driving. There are some new challenges for drivers related to semi-automated driving. Some of them are associated with suboptimal mental workload or prolonged need for sustained attention. This paper presents the results of an experiment investigating differences in manual driving before and after the automated phase in the scenario simulating a time-course of semi-automated driving. Sample size: 52 participants with two experimental sessions each day and night session. The experiment used a driving simulator to create a semi-automated driving scenario comprising manual driving, the automated phase, and manual driving. The following questionnaires were collected: Karolinska Sleepiness Scale, Take-Over Readiness Scale (developed for this research project, included in Appendix), Samn–Perelli Fatigue Scale, and NASA-TLX. Driving performance significantly decreased after the automated phase (e.g., standard deviation of the steering wheel angle was 255.73 before vs. 287.11 after automation) and the effect was more profound during the night. Participants were sleepier and more fatigued after the automated phase, and assessed mental workload as lower. The results of the questionnaires did not correlate with driving performance. The results of the experiment suggest that manual driving could deteriorate after the automated phase, and that driver might not be able to assess their fitness to drive at the moment of take-over of manual driving.

Driving in the night is significantly more dangerous and it cannot be solely attributed to reduced visibility or sleep deprivation. It is also due to circadian changes in human cognitive performanc...

Degraded visual conditions present a great challenge to rotary-wing aircraft. These conditions can obscure cues used to interpret speed, location and approach. With such cues obscured, pilots must rely on in-cockpit instrumentation, increasing workload, whilst reducing situation awareness. When operating within degraded visual conditions, pilots require easy access to flight critical information, presented in a way that minimises additional workload and maximises situation awareness. One technology that can be beneficial within such conditions is a head-up display (HUD). This study explores the impact of an iteratively designed HUD on pilots’ workload and situation awareness during the safety-critical descent and landing flight phases, during both clear and degraded visual conditions across a series of simulated trials. Results suggest that access to the HUD facilitated pilot awareness, whilst maintaining workload in all conditions. Results support the view that HUDS are beneficial to rotary-wing pilots, particularly in degraded visual environments.

Submarine control room layouts have remained similar across decades of operation, despite the introduction of new technologies that allow for the co-location of the sound and control room. Operation of an inwards, rather than outwards, facing ring control room configuration was examined in three scenarios: Return to Periscope Depth, Inshore Operations, and Dived Tracking. A case study design employed a serving team of qualified submariners participated in all three scenarios with high and low demand. Communications and activities in the control room were recorded and analysed using the Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method. EAST models collaborative teamwork through social, information, and task networks. The results from the ring configuration were compared to an outward facing baseline of the contemporary control room layout with a separate sound and control room. The ring control room configuration increased communications between operators, leading to a more information exchanged, and more tasks completed. Practitioner summary: Control room design on submarines, and other domains, has traditionally been outward facing with supervisory staff looking over the shoulders of their subordinates. In this paper, and inward looking control room design was explored, with subordinate staff facing their supervisors. This design resulted in more information exchange and productive work.

Previous research has shown a potential bottleneck of communication of information between the sonar controller (SOC) and operations officer (OPSO) in submarine sound and control rooms. This research aimed to see if this bottleneck could be removed by co-locating the sound and control room teams. Further, it also looked at the effects of reducing the crew numbers. Ten teams preformed the return to periscope depth tasks during high and low demand in a simulated submarine control room. Activities and communications of the teams were recorded and compared with data from a baseline condition of contemporary operations. The findings show that the co-location of the sound room and control room teams relieved the bottleneck of communications between the SOC and OPSO. Although communications increased, this was more balanced across team members and more relative to operational demand. This was coupled with more efficient task completion, resulting in greater number of tasks being completed by the command teams. Reduced crewing led to greater communications between the remaining members of the team together with task shedding in the higher demand condition. Future research should contrast these findings with objective measures of task performance to better understand potential performance benefits.

Submarine control room operations have not changed much over the past 50 years, despite introduction of new technologies. This study sought to catalog current operations as a baseline for comparing new ways of working. Three scenarios were selected to be examined in both high and low demand: returning to periscope depth, dived tracking, and inshore operations. The scenarios were run in a submarine simulator with currently serving submariners from the Royal Navy. The flow of throughout the submarine command team was examined using event analysis for systemic teamwork (EAST). EAST models collaborative teamwork via three networks: task, social, and information. Results show that the social interactions, information transition, and focus of tasks are different depending on the particular operation being completed and the work demand placed on the command team. There are particular information elements that are fundamental across all scenario types. Task and communication load is not evenly distributed across the team, with potential bottlenecks identified between the sonar controller and operations officer roles. Implications of the results are discussed alongside recommendations for future research.

The field of naturalistic decision making research has hugely advanced understanding of how experts make decisions in operational environments. However, there is still a drive to improve the credibility and transferability of such research. In the current work four studies are presented which used similar methods. Standardised measures of cognitive function were administered to Authorised Firearms Officers (AFOs) after completion of immersive tactical training scenarios. The tests were chosen to examine differences between information modalities (e.g., visual vs. phonological). Results indicate that the demand associated with tactical training scenarios led to cognitive adaptions, resulting in a significant increase in visual processing capacity and reductions in phonological processing capacity. The findings indicate that an adaptive switch to visual information modality may underpin experience-based decision making by AFOs. The findings provide insight into why training and policy should keep verbal and auditory demands placed on AFOs to a minimum.

Submarine command and control operations are not well understood, but they are an exemplar of macrocognition. For the first time, this study compares three operational scenarios in a simulated submarine control room: returning to periscope depth (RTPD), inshore operations (INSO), and dived tracking of contact (DT). The event analysis of systematic teamwork (EAST) method was used to model macrocognition by way of social, task, and information networks. Results indicate that the composition of the networks differed significantly depending upon operation type and demand. The statistical differences reveal how macrocognitive processes such as situation assessment, coordination, and problem detection are context dependent and drive the attainment of team knowledge to suit operational requirements. The Officer of the Watch consistently had the highest centrality of all operators, highlighting the importance of this operator in utilising team knowledge to inform tactical decisions. Implications are discussed alongside suggestions for future work.

The delegation of tasks to a non-human agent in a sociotechnical system can extend human capabilities and performance. Effective performance is, however, reliant on a successful relationship between human operators and automation. Optronics is a partially automated system which has replaced periscope on board some modern submarine platforms, operating modes permit the completion of tasks either manually or utilizing automation. A reluctance to utilize automated functionality within the optronics system has been due to operator familiarity with legacy manual procedures based upon the use of a physical periscope. This highlights the gap that is prevalent between innovation, design, training and governance of automation utilization. The current work examined current (Control group) utilization of optronics technology using an expert population in a high fidelity simulator. Findings were utilized to guide the development of novel optronics specific standard operating procedures (Intervention group). Results indicate that automaton disuse was greatly reduced, which had had a positive overall impact on overall system performance with regard to productivity and accuracy. The current work highlights the importance of incorporating governance of use and training as part of an automation design and implementation program is critical to help 'maximize what you have'.

A submarine is routinely required to return to periscope depth; however, a transition from deep to shallow waters is one the most dangerous operations due to the potential to collide with surface vessels. Submarine operations are not particularly well understood outside the immediate submarine community, particularly from a sociotechnical perspective. A submarine sounds and control room simulator was used to examine the work of ten teams. The Event Analysis of Systematic Teamwork method was used to model the social, task and information networks in order to describe team performance. Results showed that the sonar controller and operations officer are the busiest in the command team. Communication between these operators was revealed as a potential bottleneck in the command team, particularly during higher demand scenarios. The information communicated and tasks completed centred on the processing and understanding of sonar data. Implications are discussed alongside suggestions for future work.

Partially automated vehicles are in actual use, and vehicles with higher levels of automation are under development. Given that highly automated vehicles (AVs) still require drivers’ intervention in certain conditions, effective collaboration between the driver and vehicle seems essential for driving safety. Having a clear understanding about drivers’ interactions with the current technologies is key to enhance them. Additionally, comprehending drivers’ perceptions toward AVs investigated in naturalistic settings seems important. This study particularly focuses on usability, workload, and acceptance of AVs as they are key indicators of drivers’ perceptions. Eight drivers conducted manual and automated driving in urban and highway environments. Their interactions and verbal descriptions were recorded, and perceptions were measured after each drive. Instances that may have negatively affected the perceptions were identified. The results showed that workload was higher, usability and acceptance were lower in automated driving in general. Findings show what should be considered to improve driver-autonomous vehicle interaction, in turn to help reduce workload, enhance usability, and acceptance.

Studies on contemporary submarine control room configurations revealed a bottleneck of information transition. The co-location of operators dependent on each other for task-relevant information relieved this, however, the impact of operator co-location on subjective Situation Awareness (SA) was not assessed. In the current work, half of the teams from the baseline study and half of the teams from the co-location configuration were evaluated on two SA questions: (1) “Rate the awareness of the total number of vessels surrounding the submarine” and (2) “How many vessels did the entire command team encounter during the scenario?”. Participants completed high and low demand Return to Periscope Depth scenarios and responded to the SA questions immediately after finishing each scenario. Results indicate that operator SA decreased in the high demand scenarios regardless of control room configuration type. Furthermore, operator SA was greater in the co-location configuration than in the baseline study (contemporary configuration).

The manner in which control rooms are configured can impact the flow of information between command teams. Previous research revealed bottlenecks of communications between the Sonar Controller (SOC) and the Operations Officer (OPSO) in submarine control rooms. One way to relieve such bottlenecks is to co-locate operators reliant on one another for task relevant information. The aim of the current studies was to use multiple command teams to empirically examine a novel submarine control room configuration and a reduced crew size in comparison to a baseline of contemporary operations to see if such bottlenecks could be removed. Ten teams performed high and low demand Dived Tracking (DT) scenarios in a simulated submarine control room. Activities and communications of the teams were recorded and quantified using the Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method affording statistical comparisons with a baseline condition of contemporary operations. The findings showed that the co-location of operators relieved the bottleneck of communications between the SOC and the OPSO. Although overall communications increased, this was more balanced across the team and was more adaptive to scenario demand. This was coupled with a significant increase in task completion, even with a reduced crew size, suggesting greater efficiency and productivity. Future research should seek to validate the changes observed with objective measures of task performance.

The separation of the sound and control rooms in Royal Navy submarines seems to be artefactually reducing the effectiveness of information transition and the overall productivity of the team. A proposed integrated sound and control room was tested in three scenarios: Return to Periscope Depth (RTPD), Inshore Operations (INSO) and Dived Tracking (DT). The activities and communications of a team of serving submariners were recorded in a control room, in a single case study design, comparing co-location and reduced crewing with a baseline of the separate sound and control room configurations that is representative of current submarines. The Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method was used to examine changes in social, information and task networks. In general terms, the co-location of the submariner team led to more efficient communication and completion of tasks. Reducing the crew was more challenging in the higher demand scenarios. Practitioner Summary: There are constraints acting on control rooms, both in terms of physical space and crew size. This study compared conventional control room with co-location and reduced crew in turn. Teamwork improved in the collocated control room but the reduced crew struggled most under conditions of high demand. Abbreviations: DT: dived tracking; EAST: event analysis for systemic teamwork; H: high; INSO: inshore operations; L: low; OOW: office of the watch; OpsO: operations officer; Peri: periscope operator; RTPD: return to periscope depth; RN: royal navy; SoC: sonar controller; SoP: sonar operator; TMA: time-motion analyst.

The continuing advancement of technological development will require submarine control rooms of the future to process greater volumes of data from next-generation sensors. The requirements placed upon future submarine control rooms might necessitate changes to their ways of working to maintain effective performance. The Command Team Experimental Test-Bed (ComTET) is a project that aims to evaluate future ways of working through systematic, repeatable, and statistically robust experimentation. As part of the ComTET program, novel User Interfaces (UI) are being designed and evaluated. The design process utilised for the development of the novel UIs was the Google Ventures design sprint methodology, with the aim of leveraging expert participants experience and recommendations to inform future interface design requirements and novel concepts. The current work describes a three-day workshop that was held to design these interfaces and presents the resultant prototype designs.

A growing area of research addresses how physiological data can be used to understand the state of an operator across a variety of operational environments, including semi-autonomous driving. Use of multiple physiological sensors is highly practical; however, it introduces a number of challenges related to signal noise reduction. During the design and construction of the laboratory in HI:DAVe it became clear that there was not much documentation concerning how to undertake such a task. Paper is assimilating the literature related to this to provide a user’s guide for how someone can get to the stage of a fully functional Faraday Cage mid-fidelity driving simulator with an extensive physiological recording suite. It describes a process of psychophysiological laboratory construction and introduces a decision-tree to help with the choice of the most optimal noise-reduction strategies. The psychophysiological measures included are electroencephalography, electrooculography, electromyography, eye-tracking, voice analysis, electrocardiography, respiration, electrodermal response and oximetry.

The quickening pace of technological advancement will require submarine command teams of the future to process greater volumes of data, potentially with fewer operators. User Interfaces (UIs) have evolved to meet current requirements, but this iterative process has propagated legacy design paradigms that may be unsuitable for future system specifications. To understand where improvements may be made, a review of current submarine control room operation is presented, using a sociotechnical systems approach. The social (command team: work, structure, and communication) and technical (combat systems) components are presented for context. An emphasis is placed on Sonar and Target Motion Analysis due to their prevalence within the control room. It was found that current UIs place increased cognitive requirements on operators due to the complexity and quantity of information presented. It is proposed that adopting an Ecological Interface Design (EID) approach could reduce such issues, facilitating effective resource allocation to manage increased data volumes. EID has been demonstrated to be effective across many domains, however, its exploitation in submarine control rooms is limited. Advances in modern submarine combat systems have promoted greater flexibility, providing an opportunity to utilise contemporary design philosophies for designing intuitive interfaces to maintain effective control room performance.

Future maritime command teams will process more data, a trend driven by continued technological advances and new sensors. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) are contributing to this, as their usage is steadily growing in civilian and military contexts. A key challenge is effective integration of growing volumes of data into the command team, ensuring optimal performance for completing the variety of missions and tasks that may be required. In particular, operator cognitive capacity should not be exceeded, as this may negatively impact global team performance. A review of ROV usage revealed that they are predominately deployed to understand and interact with their environment. Ecological Interface Design (EID) aims to make system constraints apparent and reduce operator workload. As the aims of EID are synergistic with ROV operation, it is hypothesised that operator workload may be reduced if interfaces are implemented that adhere to these design principles. In the current work EID is proposed as a design paradigm for ROV UIs, to facilitate optimal future performance.

Previous work revealed bottlenecks in information transition between submarine command team members, which may be detrimental to overall performance. To date, the potential impact of such bottlenecks in terms of time to pass critical information has not been investigated. An understanding of the temporal impact is critical, given the time critical nature of tactical picture generation. Four teams of eight participants (32 participants total) were recruited and trained at one of the operator stations in a bespoke built submarine control room simulator. Participants completed high and low demand Return to Periscope Depth scenarios. The timings of technology-human and human-human interactions were calculated. Preliminary results indicated that the largest temporal lag was the transition of human-human information. Furthermore, loss of information occurred with every stage of information transition. As demand increased, the efficiency of information transition was negatively impacted by increased communications between operators. Initial results are discussed along with future analysis plans.