Search

Central Asia is a region where the osce has been engaged for more than two decades, including with missions and field presences in all five participating states. This engagement reflects the hope that these countries will gradually align themselves with the values, principles and norms of the organization. The region, however, presents the following challenges. First, Central Asian states strictly adhere to state sovereignty and want to constrain the osce’s involvement in domestic affairs. Second, these states prioritize the organization’s economic and ecological dimension, and want to reduce the importance of its human rights dimension. Finally, the activity programmes of the remaining osce field presences in the region are subject to the approval of host governments.

Three electrosurgical tissue-sealing devices (EnSeal ETSDRC-01, LigaSure LS1500 and Thunderbeat TB-0535PC) were compared regarding sealing time (ST), maximum working temperature (WTmax) and the total (MTZtotal) as well as the collateral microscopic thermal injury zone (MTZcollat) using laparoscopic handpieces 5 mm in diameter on four types of tissue (liver, mesentery, cross striated muscle and spleen) in an in vivo porcine model. LigaSure had the lowest mean ST in spleen, mesentery, muscle and liver, followed by Thunderbeat and EnSeal with significant differences between all types of tissues and devices. The significantly lowest mean WTmax was obtained for EnSeal in mesentery, muscle and liver. LigaSure and EnSeal operated at the lowest temperature in spleen without a significant difference between them. Thunderbeat produced significantly higher temperature peaks in all cases. The lowest mean MTZtotal was caused by LigaSure and EnSeal in spleen, mesentery and muscle without significant differences between them, followed by the significantly higher values of Thunderbeat. Nevertheless, Thunderbeat produced the significantly lowest mean MTZtotal in the liver. EnSeal produced the lowest mean MTZcollat in the liver, followed by LigaSure and Thunderbeat showing significant differences. EnSeal and LigaSure produced the lowest mean MTZcollat in the spleen, mesentery and muscle without significant differences between them, followed by the significantly higher values of Thunderbeat. Based on the results of this study, Thunderbeat seems to be more invasive to tissue integrity (even without the activation of the ultrasonic scissor function) than EnSeal or LigaSure, that operate at lower temperatures and were found to cause negligible collateral thermal damage.

The six eastern partners of the European Union (EU) (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine) are states with which the EU aims to establish value-based relations without offering membership perspective. The EU uses its economic strength and attraction as far as visa-free access to EU territory to persuade the six states to stay on the orbit of the EU. However, the EU has limited means of conditionality and it remains questionable what it can achieve with its socialisation. The six partners are in different position as far as their readiness to share western norms and values and follow them. Problems start when the expectations of the EU require major adjustments in the partner’s society, like the introduction of effective anti-corruption measures, guaranteeing judicial independence, providing for a vibrant civil society, fostering a pluralistic and independent media, and achieving good governance. Even the best performing partners face some difficulty in one area or other whereas declaratory human rights policy is not an issue for any as they all belong to various arrangements (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), Council of Europe, United Nations) that contain similar requirements. That is why norms and political reality are not congruent that will cause problems for the EU in the relationship for the future. It will continue to face hesitant implementation of human rights commitments by those that lag behind and push for EU membership by the best performing eastern partners.

Central Asia is the ‘best customer’ of the OSCE. It is the area of five post-Soviet OSCE participating states that are in significant need of support by the organization that prides itself on cooperative security and that have many shortcomings primarily in the humanitarian dimension, which the organization should foster to change. Central Asia has demonstrated less political and socio-economic transformation since its independence than it could have. While it receives reduced interest due to the declining importance of those two matters that contributed to it (rich natural resources and energy bearers and the vicinity of Afghanistan), the OSCE is the organization where Central Asia is ‘at home’. Central Asian states would like to face less soft persuasion (and even less hard pressure), but they would like to benefit from the assistance of the organization and its participating states. It is for this reason that there is more than one OSCE in Central Asia trying to meet the different needs of the ...

Conflicts and their management in Central Asia have never been prioritised by the osce although five states of the region are among its participating states. This has been due to that unlike in some other parts of the post-Soviet space most of the conflicts did not threaten with military escalation, and the intensity of strategic rivalry is less noticeable in this distant part of the osce area than closer to the heart of Europe. The fact Russia is not a direct party to the conflicts in Central Asia also reduces the interests of many participating states. There was one high intensity conflict in the region, the Tajik civil war that came too early for the osce. Lower intensity conflicts, ranging from border skirmishes, disputes about access to water, violation of rights of national minority groups, rigged elections are monitored and their resolutions are facilitated by the organisation. Some of them, like the 2010 Kyrgyz-Uzbek conflict had such short shelf-life internationally that no consensus-based inter-governmental organisation could have effectively intervened into it. The osce has been successful in conflict management when the party or parties also wanted to break the stale-mate that the Organization could facilitate. Domestic change in some Central Asian states is essential for advancing the osces cooperative security approach.

Relatively few, and inconsistent, data are available in the literature about the properties of EnSeal®, an electrosurgical tissue-sealing device. For this reason, we conducted control safety tests on experimental pigs. The mean burst pressure of sealed vessels (2–7 mm in diameter) proved to be 873.89 ± 120.57 mmHg (n = 60). Surface temperature increased to 69.25 ± 0.98 °C in average (n = 22). The mean diameter of the collateral microscopic thermal injury zone was found to be 0.28 ± 0.04 mm, and it did not show significant differences among the groups of tissues studied (n = 183). During our studies, the device worked reliably and met the relevant requirements in all cases. It can be established that EnSeal® enables high-safety clinical interventions at high blood pressure values, in different tissues and even at sites adjacent to heat-sensitive tissues, and thus it paves the way for new operative solutions in both human and veterinary surgery. In our opinion, the discrepancies between data reported in the literature arise from differences in the design of studies and in the designated limit values. To ensure standardisation, we recommend the use of the nitroblue-tetrazolium chloride/lactate dehydrogenase (NBTC/LDH) enzyme histochemical technique for studying thermal injury induced by the different performance levels and application times of devices operating with electromagnetic energy.

The paper analyses the few successes and many failures of the defence reform of Hungary since the system change of 1990. It concludes that the failures have been due to objective reasons. Namely, due to the multiple changes that had to be carried out in politics, economy and the society the defence sector has been losing out in a largely threat-free environment. The shortage of human and financial resources is aggravated by the subjective mistakes, including waste and corruption. The difficulties Hungary has been facing—similarly to most countries in East–Central Europe—point to a pertinent question: why have defence reforms failed in most cases in the new democracies generally?

The present study evaluated the histological changes in the muscle tissue after limb lengthening in skeletally immature rabbits and assessed the effect of different lengthening rates on the regeneration and degeneration properties of striated muscle. Thirteen different lengthening protocols were applied on a total of 16 male domestic white rabbits divided into four groups. The histopathological changes were analysed by a semiquantitative method according to the scoring system of Lee et al. (1993). After evaluation of the five main degenerative parameters (muscle atrophy, internalisation of muscle nuclei, degeneration of the muscle fibre, perimysial and endomysial fibrosis, haematomas), it is evident that rabbits subjected to limb lengthening at a rate of 3.2 mm/day showed more degenerative changes than those limb-lengthened at 0.8 or 1.6 mm/day. Our study showed that the regenerative mechanisms were not endless. If the daily lengthening rate reached the 3.2 mm/day limit, the regenerating ability of the muscle decreased, and signs of degeneration increased significantly.

This policy-focused Global Environmental and Human Security Handbook for the Anthropo-cene (GEHSHA) addresses new security threats, challenges, vulnerabilities and risks posed by global environmental change and disasters. In 6 forewords, 5 preface essays 95 peer reviewed chapcountries analyse in 10 parts concepts of military and political hard security and economic, social, environmental soft security with a regional focus on the Near East, North and Sub-Sahara Africa and Asia and on hazards in urban centres. The major focus is on coping with global environmental change: climate change, desertifi­ca­tion, water, food and health and with hazards and strategies on social vulnerability and resilience building and scientific, international, regional and national political strategies, policies and measures including early warning of conflicts and hazards. The book proposes a political geo-ecology and discusses a ‘Fourth Green Revolution’ for the Anthropocene era of earth history.

Russia’s security policy and perception of the 21st century cannot be understood without taking a glance at the preceding fifteen years or so (Sergunin 2008; see chap. 12; Bailes/Baranovsky/Dunay 2007). Although there are certain elements of continuity between the 15 years since the mid-1980’s to the end of the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century, there are also major elements of discontinuity. Therefore historical references may be of limited relevance for the recent past and the near future.

Soon after the end of the East-West conflict, European security became the subject of heated debate and speculation. This review of five recent books on the topic aims to contribute to the ongoing discussion. It has now become fashionable to speak about a `new security architecture' and to concentrate on the role various institutions may play under today's fundamentally changed conditions. Such an approach is somewhat misleading, because it does not focus on the problems but rather on the relations of organizations. A main problem is the re-emergence of nationalism and ethnic strife in Eastern Europe. Here one must pay close attention to the domestic developments of the new democracies. If these countries fail at home, first of all economically, they will certainly fail internationally as well. More attention should have been paid to these factors. Most of the books reviewed agree that formerly Western organizations like the EC and NATO will become the core of the new institutional setting in Europe, only one of them gives precedence to the CSCE. The latter approach seems more realistic. Scenario analysis reflecting unpredictability has become very popular recently. This can be valuable if authors make clear which factors determine the likelihood of the realization of one scenario or the other. If not, outlining various scenarios serves no other purpose than to mask unpredictability.

Hardly any other topic of international security can be approached from so many angles as the North Atlantic Alliance. NATO has been a central player of European and Euro-Atlantic relations since 1949. It will continue to retain its importance for many years to come. One could qualify this statement and draw the preliminary conclusion: NATO will exist amidst debates as long as it lasts.

Direct intraosseous injection of fibrosing agent is widely used in the treatment of aneurysmal bone cysts. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the consequences of fibrosing agent penetrating the medulla of bones. This may be the case when, by mistake, the fibrosing agent is administered into the medulla or when the wall of the cyst ruptures and fibrosing agent is able to drift into the medulla. Twelve rabbits were injected transcutaneously with a fibrosing agent directly into the proximal metaphysis of the tibia. Prior to injection 0.5 ml of liquid-like, bloody, intraosseal tissue was aspirated, then 0.5 ml of fibrosing agent was administered. Fibrosing agent was introduced slowly (20 s) to avoid overpressure. Nine rabbits (75%) died within minutes after the introduction of fibrosing agent. A full body roentgenogram was taken of each rabbit and the animals that died underwent autopsy to find the exact cause of death. Roentgenograms of the chest showed massive multiple pulmonary emboli confirmed in all lethal cases by the autopsy. This animal model was created to draw attention to the dangers of any leakage of the fibrosing agent into the medulla of bones.

Summary Objectives This study aimed at evaluating the clinical performance and osseointegration of short orthodontic implants immediately loaded with orthodontic forces. Material and methods The investigation was designed as an experimental animal study. Eight palatal implants of the Ortho-system® were immediately loaded with 100 cN after palatal insertion in 4 female german shepherd dogs. Xylene orange and calcein green were used for polychrome sequential labelling. Histological preparation utilized the cutting and grinding technique. Outcome variables were clinical implant success, histological osseointegration and bone-to-implant contact rates. Results All (8/8) implants were clinically successful and stable when the animals were sacrificed. One implant showed fibrous encapsulation and was histologically classified as “failed” for “osseointegration”. Upon morphometrical analysis, bone to implant contact rates for newly formed or remodelled bone were 19% at 4 weeks and 26% at 6 months. The fluorochrome labelling indicated substantial mineral apposition on the surface of the implants at the end of the first and the second postoperative months. Conclusion This study revealed borderline reliability of osseointegration for immediately loaded palatal implants but reasonable bone formation at the 4th postoperative week. Thus, two clinical concepts are both supported: early orthodontic loading after 4 weeks as well as improvement of primary stability to provide a biomechanical basis for immediate orthodontic loading.

Hungary has no proud military tradition. It was on the losing side in both world wars, and during the Soviet period had the rather inglorious task of providing ‘forward defence’ until the arrival of Soviet reinforcements. Since this would be in support of the Soviet armed forces, Hungarian units and formations were integrated in larger Soviet formations. This resulted in a lack of independent strategic planning in the Hungarian armed forces. Moreover, all strategic planning in the Warsaw Treaty Organisation (WTO) was concentrated in the Soviet General Staff, and Hungarian officers therefore had little command and staff expertise. Hungary also inherited an antiquated defence structure from the WTO era. It belonged to the southern tier of the organisation and its equipment was less modern than those of the armed forces on the northern tier — the front-line states, the GDR and Czechoslovakia. Moreover, the presence of large numbers of Soviet troops on its territory further reduced its military importance, and from the 1970s the Hungarian government was reluctant to invest in military procurement. Taken together, these factors resulted in poorly trained, equipped and motivated armed forces, who were not respected at either domestic or international levels. In 1989, the Hungarian military therefore faced a series of challenges.

The nature of Hungary’s transition from communism to democracy in 1989–90 was unique, sharing some similarities only with developments in Poland. In both cases reformist elements within the communist elite agreed a negotiated transition with the democratic opposition movements. This pattern differed from that in every other country of the region. In Hungary, further, the change was gradual — beginning before the dramatic events of 1989 — and took place with the active involvement of parts of the communist establishment. This created a difficult legacy for the political forces that came to power in democratic elections in 1990, as they had to cope with a degree of residual popularity for the previous regime.

Background The neuropeptide Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) plays pivotal roles in immunity and inflammation. So far, potential immune-modulatory properties of PACAP have not been investigated in experimental ileitis. Methodology/Principal Findings Mice were perorally infected with Toxoplasma (T.) gondii to induce acute ileitis (day 0) and treated daily with synthetic PACAP38 from day 1 to 6 post infection (p.i.; prophylaxis) or from day 4 to 6 p.i. (therapy). Whereas placebo-treated control mice suffered from acute ileitis at day 7 p.i. and succumbed to infection, intestinal immunopathology was ameliorated following PACAP prophylaxis. PACAP-treated mice exhibited increased abundance of small intestinal FOXP3+ cells, but lower numbers of ileal T lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes and macrophages, which was accompanied by less ileal expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-23p19, IL-22, IFN-γ, and MCP-1. Furthermore, PACAP-treated mice displayed higher anti-inflammatory IL-4 concentrations in mesenteric lymph nodes and liver and higher systemic anti-inflammatory IL-10 levels in spleen and serum as compared to control animals at day 7 p.i. Remarkably, PACAP-mediated anti-inflammatory effects could also be observed in extra-intestinal compartments as indicated by reduced pro-inflammatory mediator levels in spleen (TNF-α, nitric oxide) and liver (TNF-α, IFN-γ, MCP-1, IL-6) and less severe histopathological sequelae in lungs and kidneys following prophylactic PACAP treatment. Strikingly, PACAP prolonged survival of T. gondii infected mice in a time-of-treatment dependent manner. Conclusion/Significance Synthetic PACAP ameliorates acute small intestinal inflammation and extra-intestinal sequelae by down-regulating Th1-type immunopathology, reducing oxidative stress and up-regulating anti-inflammatory cytokine responses. These findings provide novel potential treatment options of inflammatory bowel diseases.