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This anthology is addressed to anyone searching for examples of individually tailored inclusive practices in the community of the class, with a critical view of their successes, shortcomings and obstacles. The book is divided into three parts: Part One contains articles that outline important aspects of the research cooperation. Part Two presents individual summaries of findings from each of the seven studies. Part Three consists of the joint comparative research report. This is the third and final anthology related to the international comparative research cooperation project WB 04/06: Development towards the Inclusive School: Practices – Research – Capacity Building.

The topic of our research is the phonetic interferences and characteristics of the pronunciation of vowels by Slovenian-Italian bilingual speakers from Trieste and by monolingual Slovenians from Slovenia. By analysing Slovenian vowels (formants) we tried to identify the differences in the vowel space of monolingual and bilingual Slovenian speakers and to determine whether bilingual speakers have one or two vowel systems. The results show that the Italian language and the Trieste dialect exert a strong influence on the vocalic system of bilingual speakers, as the formants of their Slovenian vowels (at F1 or/and F2) differ significantly in variability and average value from those of monolinguals. All of the formants, except for F1 and F2 of stressed and unstressed /a/ and /%/, differ significantly between the two groups. It can be concluded that Slovenian speakers from Trieste have an independent and unitary vowel system. Namen prispevka je preučiti fonetsko interferenco in prikazati značilnosti izgovora samoglasnikov dveh skupin govork -- slovensko-italijansko Slovenk iz Trsta in okolice ter enojezičnih Slovenk iz Slovenije. Želimo ugotoviti, ali in v čem se tržaška slovenščina razlikuje od slovenščine govorcev iz Slovenije in ali ima dvojezična oseba iz Trsta enoten ali dvojen samoglasniški sistem. Rezultati kažejo, da se formanti slovenskih samoglasnikov med skupinama govork skoraj pri vseh samoglasnikih (pri F1 ali/in F2) statistično pomembno razlikujejo tako po variabilnosti kot glede na povprečje. Samoglasniki, pri katerih se statistično pomembne razlike niso pokazale, so naglašeni in nenaglašeni /a/ ter /%/. Lahko torej trdimo, da imajo tržaške govorke samostojen in dokaj enoten samoglasniški sistem.

Za boljše spopadanje s težavami na področju branja je pomembna zgodnja obravnava in posledično zgodnje odkrivanje primanjkljajev. Visoko tveganje za pojav težav na področju branja je možno zaznati že pred formalnim učenjem branja, ki poteka v prvem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju, še posebno pri otrocih pred vstopom v osnovno šolo ali ob vstopu vanjo. Osrednji cilj raziskave je oblikovanje instrumenta, s katerim bi želeli odkriti otroke s slabše razvitimi predbralnimi zmožnostmi ob vstopu v osnovno šolo. V slovenskem prostoru še nimamo standardiziranega instrumenta, ki ocenjuje izključno predbralne zmožnosti. Po vzoru tujih in domačih uveljavljenih instrumentov oziroma preizkusov smo oblikovali enoten nabor preizkusov za ocenjevanje predbralnih zmožnosti. Razvitost zgodnjih bralnih zmožnosti smo dodatno ugotavljali s Testom zgodnjih bralnih zmožnosti (Jurišić, 2001). Preizkuse smo uporabili na vzorcu 307 otrok v starosti od 5 do 7 let, 64 otrok s tveganjem za nastanek težav na področju branja ter 243 otrok brez tveganja. Tveganje je bilo določeno glede na rezultat na Testu zgodnjih bralnih zmožnosti. Visok Cronbach alfa koeficient zanesljivosti (alfa = 0,87) potrjuje, da je oblikovan Preizkus predbralnih zmožnosti zanesljiv in občutljiv. Faktorska analiza je pokazala, da strukturo predbralnih zmožnosti določajo štirje faktorji: metafonološke zmožnosti, zaznavno jezikovne strukture, besedišče in vidno procesiranje. Regresijska analiza je pokazala, da odstranitev glasu besedi brez pomena, prepoznavanje prvega glasu, glasovna analiza, priklic besed na določen fonem in fonemska diskriminacija same po sebi napovedujejo uspeh na Testu zgodnjih bralnih zmožnosti. Z diskriminativno analizo smo ugotovili, da spremenljivke glasovna analiza, prepoznavanje prvega glasu, odstranitev glasu ali zloga, priklic besed na določen fonem, kratkotrajni slušni spomin, prepoznavanje rim in natančnost vidnega razlikovanja najbolje pojasnjujejo razlike med skupinama otrok z in brez tveganja za nastanek težav na področju branja. Na osnovi rezultatov raziskave smo potrdili, da oblikovan instrumentarij omogoča prepoznavanje otrok, pri katerih se pojavlja tveganje za nastanek težav na področju branja ob vstopu v šolo. Preizkus predbralnih zmožnosti bo specialnim in rehabilitacijskim pedagogom omogočil oceno stopnje razvitosti posamezne predbralne zmožnosti pri otroku, starem od 5 do 7 let, in zgodnjo vključitev v obravnavo, kar bo posledično vplivalo na boljšo napoved glede odprave težav na področju branja. In order to better cope with reading difficulties, early treatment, and, consequently, early detection of deficiency are important. A high risk of developing reading difficulties can be detected even before a child learns to read, especially prior to their they enrollment in elementary school or first grade. The main aim of the research was to design an instrument with which it would be possible to single out children with a less-developed preliteracy competence in the time of starting school. In Slovenia, we do not have a standardized instrument to assess preliteracy competence. We have developed a set of tests that assesses preliteracy competence based on well-established foreign and Slovenian instruments or tools. The development of early reading ability was assessed by the Test of Early Reading Competence (Jurišić, 2001). A sample of 307 children aged from five to seven was tested, with 64 children who were at risk for developing reading difficulties and 243 who were not. The risk was determined on the basis of the result of the Test of Early Reading Competence. A high Cronbach alpha coefficient (apha = 0,87) indicates that the designed instrument is an internally reliable instrument. Factor analysis showed that the structure of preliteracy competence consists of four factors: metaphonology, perceptual language structures, vucabulary, and visual processing. A regression analysis showed that phoneme deletion, the identification of the first sound, syllable synthesis, recalling words that start with a certain phoneme, and phoneme discrimination suffice on their own in predicting the outcome of the Test of Early Reading Competence. A discriminative analysis showed that phoneme analysis, the identification of the first sound, syllable and phoneme deletion, recalling words that start with a certain phoneme, auditory short-term memory, the identification of rhymes, and the accuracy of visual discrimination best explain the differences between the group of children with and the group of children without the risk of developing reading difficulties. On the basis of the results obtainer in our study, we have confirmed that the deveoped instrument enables the identification of children who are at risk of developing reading difficulties when starting elementary school. The test of preliteracy competence will enable special education teachers to assess the degree of preliteracy competence development in children aged from five to seven and their early inclusion in therapy which will, in turn, enable a better prognosis with regard to the elimination of reading difficulties.

Rojstvo otroka s posebnimi potrebami neizogibno vpliva na spremembo družinske dinamike. Člane družine prisili k iskanju novih vzorcev delovanja, k vzpostavitvi ravnotežja in jim vsiljuje novo vrsto identitete – identiteto invalidnosti. Predmet raziskovanja so tako družine z otroki s posebnimi potrebami, izražanje posebne potrebe v družinski dinamiki s poudarkom na soočanju s posebno potrebo otroka, zadovoljevanje potreb, spremembe obstoječih vlog, soočanje z izzivi in potrebne prilagoditve, doživljanje socialne (iz/v)ključenosti, posluževanje vrst pomoči, potrebna dodatna pomoč in podpora, informiranost glede možnih virov pomoči in podpore, izkušnje zadovoljstva s procesom pomoči in nenazadnje perspektiva procesa pomoči. Družine z otroki s posebnimi potrebami so pri vzpostavitvi ravnovesja ranljive, šibke in nemočne, zato potrebujejo socialno oporo in podporo različnih strokovnih služb. Predmet raziskovanja so tudi strokovni delavci, njihovo razumevanje pojma otroka s posebnimi potrebami, razumevanje potreb družine, vrste pomoči in podpore, ki jo lahko ponudijo, informiranost glede možnih virov v Sloveniji in v tujini, možnosti strokovnega izpopolnjevanja, doživljanje interakcij z družinami in nenazadnje perspektiva za izboljšanje procesa pomoči. V metodologiji smo s kvalitativnim raziskovalnim pristopom in tehniko polstrukturiranega intervjuja izvedli intervjuje z desetimi družinami z otroki s posebnimi potrebami z izkušnjo sodelovanja s strokovnimi službami na področju skrbi ranljivejših družin iz vladnih in nevladnih organizacij ter z desetimi strokovnimi delavci s teh področij. V ta namen smo oblikovali dva različna vprašalnika, posebej za družine in posebej za strokovne delavce. Transkripciji intervjujev je sledilo kodiranje izjav znotraj posameznih faz. Dobljene podatke smo prikazali deskriptivno in v tabelah. Z interpretacijo rezultatov smo poglobili spoznanja o moči rojstva OPP, o konceptu delovnega odnosa pomoči za družine z otroki s posebnimi potrebami ter o perspektivi potreb družine in strokovnih delavcev v procesu pomoči. Ugotavljamo, da trenutna pomoč ne omogoča razreševanja stisk in težav, družine so prezrte, nevidne, neupoštevane, brez zadostnih virov informacij, prilagoditev in podpore, občutijo stigmatizacijo, izključenost, zaradi omejenih finančnih virov so postavljene v neenakovreden položaj z drugimi ter so nezadovoljne s strokovnimi službami. Družine socialno oporo najpogosteje dobijo pri sorodnikih, strokovnih delavcih in prijateljih. Socialnega delavca omenijo kot primer dobre prakse. Strokovni delavci povedo, da nimajo zadovoljivega dodatnega izobraževanja, mreženja med strokovnimi službami in tudi ne dovolj timskega dela. Po njihovih izkušnjah so družine neodzivne, nesodelovalne, pričakujejo takojšnje rešitve, ne spoštujejo dogovorov in presojajo strokovno delo. Na osnovi opravljene raziskave predlagamo dopolnjen, celostni in individualizirani pristop, ki izhaja izključno iz potreb družin z otroki s posebnimi potrebami in zajema sodobne koncepte procesa pomoči, vključno s predlogom izboljšav za lažjo inkluzijo družin z otroki s posebnimi potrebami v družbo. Namen izboljšanja je kakovost in učinkovitost delovanja v družino usmerjenih storitev. The birth of a child with special needs inevitably affects the change in family dynamics. Members of the family are forced to find new patterns of action, to establish a balance, and are pressured into taking a new identity - the identity of disability. The subject of the research are families with children with special needs, expressing a special need in family dynamics with the emphasis on facing a child’s special need, meeting the needs, changes in existing roles, facing challenges and necessary adjustments, experiencing social inclusion and exclusion, making use of assistance, necessary additional assistance and support, information on possible sources of assistance and support, experience of satisfaction with the assistance process, and, last but not least, the future of the assistance process. Families with children with special needs are vulnerable, weak and helpless in establishing a balance, and therefore need social support and support of various specialist services. The subject of research are also professionals, their understanding of the concept of a child with special needs, understanding of the family’s needs, a type of assistance and support they can offer, information on potential sources in Slovenia and abroad, the possibilities of professional development, experiencing interactions with families and, last but not least, prospects of improving the assistance process. In the methodology we conducted interviews with ten families with children with special needs through a qualitative research approach and a technique of a semi-structured interview. These families had the experience of working with specialist services in the field of care for more vulnerable families from governmental and non-governmental organizations as well as with ten professionals from these fields. For this reason we have designed two different questionnaires, specifically for families and specifically for professionals. The transcription of interviews was followed by the encryption of statements within individual phases. The data obtained was presented descriptively and in the tables. By interpreting the results, we deepened our understanding of the power of birth of a child with special needs, of the concept of working relationship towards assistance for families with children with special needs, and the prospects of the needs of the family and professionals in the assistance process. We find that the current assistance does not make it possible to resolve distress and troubles families are overlooked, invisible, not considered, lacking sufficient sources of information, adjustments and support, they are victims of stigmatization, exclusion, they are placed in an unequal position with others and are dissatisfied with specialist services due to limited financial resources. Social support to families is most commonly given by relatives, professionals and friends. Social worker is mentioned as an example of good practice. Professionals say that they do not have a satisfactory additional education, networking between specialist services, as well as not enough teamwork. According to their experience, families are unresponsive, non-cooperative, they expect immediate results, they do not respect agreements and judge professional work. Based on the research we propose a complete, integrated and individualized approach, based exclusively on the needs of families with children with special needs and covering modern concepts of the assistance process, including suggestions for improvements for an easier social inclusion of families with children with special needs. The purpose of improving is the quality and effectiveness of performance of family-oriented services.

Po vsem svetu obstajajo smernice in mejniki, ki naj bi jih otroci v govorno-jezikovnem razvoju dosegali pri določeni starosti, vendar se ti mejniki nanašajo predvsem na segmentalni nivo govora – na glasove, zloge, besede in daljše izjave. Pri govoru pa so pomembni tudi drugi elementi: ritem, tempo, melodija, pavze. Govorimo o suprasegmentalnih elementih govora. Razvoju suprasegmentalnih elementov govora se v tujini posveča več pozornosti kot pri nas, zato me je zanimalo, kako je z razvojem teh elementov v slovenskem jeziku pri zdravem, polno čutečem otroku. Cilj naloge je analizirati, kako se razvija sposobnost dojenčkovega imitiranja suprasegmentalnih elementov govora od rojstva pa do prvega leta življenja. Zanima me, kdaj dojenček sploh začne imitirati suprasegmentalne prvine, kateri so prvi elementi, ki jih otrok imitira, v kakšnem razvojnem zaporedju se pojavijo in kako se razvija njihova kompleksnost. Odločila sem se za kvalitativno analizo imitacije suprasegmentalnih elementov govora pri dojenčici. Deklico, ki je moja hči, sem snemala v interakciji z mano (mamo) vse od rojstva pa do njenega prvega leta starosti. Avdio in video posnetke sem kasneje pregledala in nekatere izmed njih podrobneje analizirala. Rezultati so pokazali, da je deklica suprasegmentalne elemente začela posnemati že v drugem mesecu življenja. Kot prvi element se je pojavila melodija govora, v naslednjih mesecih pa so sledili še glasnost govora, višina govora, ritem in tempo govora, nazadnje se je pojavilo še posnemanje pavz. Vsi omenjeni elementi so se pojavili do dekličinega petega meseca starosti in so se do njenega prvega leta samo še razvijali ter postajali vedno bolj kompleksni. Deklica je namreč z vsakim mesecem postajala kompetentnejša za posnemanje materinega govora in njegovih prozodičnih prvin. To delo je prva raziskava, ki proučuje posnemanje suprasegmentalnih prvin govora v otrokovem prvem letu življenja v slovenskem jeziku. Na dan 7. 3. 2018 namreč v različnih bazah podatkov (Cobiss, DiKUL, Sicris) nisem zasledila podobne raziskave oziroma pri iskanju s kombinacijami ključnih besed »posnemanje«, »prozodija«, »otrok«, »mati«, »interakcija« nisem našla nobenega dela, ki bi bilo povezano z logopedsko stroko. All over the world there are guidelines and milestones that children are ought to reach in the speech-language development at a certain age, however, these milestones relate mostly to the segmental level of speech – voices, syllables, words and longer statements. There are other elements that play an important role in field of speech: rhythm, tempo, melody, pauses and longer statements. These are suprasegmental –prosodic elements of speech. The development of suprasegmental elements of speech is given far more attention abroad than in Slovenian literature, which is why the interest occurred how these elements are developed in Slovene language in a child without any developmental concer. The aim of this thesis is to analyze how the baby’s ability to imitate suprasegmental elements of speech develops from birth until the baby’s first year of life. The questions set for this research are: when does the baby start to imitate suprasegmental elements, which are the first elements that the child imitates, in what order do these elements occur, and how does their complexity develop. The decision has been made to qualitatively analyze the imitations of suprasegmental elements of speech with a baby girl. The baby girl (my daughter) has been filmed in interaction with her mother (me) since her day of birth to her first year of age. Audio and video footages have been viewed and analyzed later on. The results have shown that the girl started to imitate suprasegmental elements already in her second month. The first element that occurred was the melody of speech, followed by the volume of speech, the pitch of speech, rhythm and tempo of speech, and the imitation of pauses occurred as last. All listed elements have occurred by the girl’s fifth month and they have only developed and become more complex since her first year of age. The girl started to become more and more competent in imitating her mother’s speech and its prosodic elements. This work is the first research about imitations of suprasegmental elements of speech in Slovene language in the child’s first year. On the date of March 3rd 2018, there were no similar researches found in the database (Cobiss, DiKUL, Sicris) that included the word combinations of keywords “imitations”, “prosody”, “child”, “mother”, “interaction” and that would be connected to the field of speech and language pathology.

Pragmatične zmožnosti predstavljajo otrokovo sposobnost primerne in učinkovite rabe jezika v socialnem kontekstu. Težave na tem področju lahko že zelo zgodaj kažejo na morebitno prisotnost določenih razvojnih motenj pri otrocih – najpogosteje avtističnih motenj, pri katerih je najbolj prizadet pragmatični vidik jezika. Tako bi se bilo pri zgodnji identifikaciji in intervenciji pri teh otrocih najbolj smiselno osredotočiti na ocenjevanje prav tega. V magistrski nalogi so bile preverjene pragmatične zmožnosti predšolskih otrok z avtistično motnjo in primerjane z zmožnostmi otrok s tipičnim razvojem. Raziskava je bila narejena na vzorcu 25 otrok iz različnih zdravstvenih in vzgojno-izobraževalnih ustanov po Sloveniji. Uporabljena je bila slovenska priredba vprašalnika Language Use Inventory avtorice D. O'Neill (Ocenjevanje pragmatičnega jezikovnega razvoja predšolskih otrok M. Ozbič, D. Kogovšek, J. Novšak Brce), ki so ga izpolnjevali starši otrok z avtistično motnjo. Dobljene rezultati so pokazali, da so pragmatične zmožnosti otrok z avtistično motnjo iz vzorca veliko slabše razvite v primerjavi z njihovimi vrstniki s tipičnim razvojem. Izkazalo se je, da razlika v razvitosti pragmatičnih zmožnosti med dečki in deklicami z avtistično motnjo ni statistično pomembna, je pa za rezultate statistično pomembna starost otrok, saj imajo starejši otroci z avtistično motnjo veliko bolje razvite pragmatične zmožnosti kot mlajši. Tudi glede na diagnozo otrok (sum na avtistično motnjo ali potrjena diagnoza) ni statistično pomembnih razlik v razvitosti pragmatičnih zmožnosti med skupinama, so pa slednje precej slabše razvite pri posameznikih, ki imajo pridružene dodatne motnje (MDR). Language Use Inventory se je tudi v okviru te raziskave izkazal kot zanesljiv in uporaben merski instrumentarij. S standardizacijo in oblikovanjem norm za slovensko populacijo otrok ima potencial, da postane eden ključnih za preverjanje pragmatičnih zmožnosti v okviru zgodnjega odkrivanja avtistične motnje pri otrocih. Pragmatic abilities represent a child's ability to properly and effectively use language in a social context. Problems in this field can indicate the possible presence of certain developmental disorders in children at a very early stage. These are most often autistic spectrum disorders, where the pragmatic aspect of a language is most affected. Therefore, it would be best to concentrate on assessing these skills in the early identification and intervention of these children. This master's thesis examines the pragmatic abilities of preschool children with autism spectrum disorder and compares them to the abilities of children with a typical development. The research was carried out on a sample of 25 children from different health and educational institutions across Slovenia. The Slovenian adaptation of the Language Use Inventory questionnaire (D. O'Neill) was used in this study (Ocenjevanje pragmatičnega jezikovnega razvoja predšolskih otrok adapted by M. Ozbič, D. Kogovšek and J. Novšak Brce). The participants of this questionnaire were parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders. The results show that the pragmatic abilities of the sample of children with autism spectrum disorder are less developed compared to their peers with a typical development. It has been shown that the difference in the development of pragmatic abilities among boys and girls with autism spectrum disorder is not statistically significant. On the other hand, the difference is statistically significant in relation to the age of children. Namely, older children with autism disorder have much better developed pragmatic abilities than the younger ones. Furthermore, there are also no statistically significant differences in the development of pragmatic abilities in the context of a child's diagnosis (whether there is only a suspicion of autism spectrum disorder or a confirmed diagnosis), but they are much less developed in individuals with additional associated disorders (mental disorders). Within this study, the parent report The Language Use Inventory proved to be a reliable and useful measurement tool. By standardizing it and formulating norms for Slovenian children, the questionnaire has the potential to become one of the key pragmatic measures in the field of early detection of autistic spectrum disorders in children.

Otroci razvijajo svoj fonološki sistem od rojstva naprej. V predšolskem obdobju opažamo tudi odstopanja. Naš cilj je raziskati pojavnost govornih oz. fonoloških procesov, ki se pojavljajo pri predšolskih otrocih z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami. Zanima nas, kateri fonološki procesi se pojavljajo pri otrocih z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami ter kako vplivajo na razumljivost govora. Želimo si pridobiti ocene razumljivosti govora s strani staršev in vzgojiteljic, da bi jih na koncu primerjali z ocenami, ki sem jih pridobila s pomočjo fonološkega testa. Zanima nas tudi, ali so otroci bolj razumljivi znanim osebam kot manj znanim ter kateri so ti fonološki procesi, ki v največji meri zmanjšujejo razumljivost govora. Otroci, ki sodelujejo v raziskavi, so stari od 4 do 7 let in so usmerjeni v predšolski program z dodatno strokovno pomočjo. V sklopu mednarodnega projekta »Cross-linguistic study of protracted phonological (speech) development in children« sem zato posnela pet otrok iz Osrednje Slovenije, in sicer eno deklico in štiri fantke, pri katerih sem naredila transkripcijo govora. Glede na težavnost govorno-jezikovnih motenj so v raziskavi sodelovali: en otrok z več motnjami (zmerna govorno-jezikovna motnja), dva otroka z zmerno govorno-jezikovno motnjo, en otrok z lažjo govorno-jezikovno motnjo ter ena deklica s težko izgubo sluha. Dva otroka sta bila dvojezična, kar je tudi vplivalo na razumljivost govora, druga dva pa sta imela pogosto vnetje ušes. Da bi ugotovili, kakšna je dejanska razumljivost govora, smo informacije pridobili pri starših in vzgojiteljicah teh otrok s pomočjo vprašalnika ICS – Lestvica razumljivosti govora. Rezultate, ki smo jih pridobili s transkripcijo govora, smo nato primerjali z rezultati vzgojiteljic in staršev o razumljivosti ter tako dobili podatek o razumljivosti govora. Analizirali smo tudi, katere fonološke motnje najbolj vplivajo na razumljivost govora. Rezultati so pokazali, da se je največ različnih oblik fonoloških procesov pojavilo pri otroku z lažjo govorno-jezikovno motnjo ter pri dveh otrocih z zmerno govorno-jezikovno motnjo, ne pa pri otroku z več motnjami in otroku s težko izgubo sluha, kjer smo pričakovali več fonoloških procesov zaradi težje diagnoze. Deklica s težko izgubo sluha uporablja tudi slušni aparat. Prav tako se je pojavilo največ fonoloških procesov sistema, in sicer: drsenje, alveopalatalizacija zlitnikov, alveopalatalizacija pripornikov, sprememba samoglasnika, anteriorizacija pripornikov, sledijo procesi v strukturi: izpuščanje soglasnikov v soglasniški strukturi ter epenteza. Odgovori vzgojiteljic in staršev na vprašalniku ICS o razumljivosti so bili med seboj podobni, kar pomeni, da so vzgojiteljice in starši podali približno enake ocene pri ocenjevanju razumljivosti govora. Lahko zaključimo, da fonološki procesi in drugi razvojni dejavniki zmanjšujejo razumljivost govora. Sklepamo torej, da če se v govoru otroka pojavlja več fonoloških procesov, bo razumljivost govora slabša. Children start to develop phonological system from their birth. In preeschool period there are possible deviations in phonological system. In my master’s thesis, I will research the frequency of phonological processes which occur in preschool children with speech and language disorders. Our goal of this thesis was to find out what phonological processes occur in children with speech and language disorders and how they impact speech intelligibility. This thesis will include reviews from parents and teachers in kindergarten so that we could compare them with my results I got from phonological tests. I am also interested in whether there is a difference in comprehension of a child depending on how good person knows the child and what those phonological processes are that minimize speech intelligibility. Children participating in the study were aged between 4.6 and 7 years of age and they are included in preschool programme with additional expert assistance. Within the framework of the international project “Cross-linguistic study of protracted phonological (speech) and development of children”, I interviewed five children in central Slovenia: a girl and four boys and made a speech transcript of each interview. Given the difficulty of speech and language disorders, children participated in the study are a child with multiple disabilities (moderate speech-language disorder), two children with moderate speech and language disorder, a child with mild speech and language disorder and a girl suffering from hard loss of hearing.Two children are bilingual: that also affects the intelligibility of speech and the other two have had frequent ear infections. In order to determine what the actual speech intelligibility is, we acquired information fromthe parents and the teachers of these children. We handed them the questionnaire ICS – Intelligibility in Context Scale. The results obtained in a transcript of speech were compared with the results of the teachers and the parents, and that is how we acquired information on speech intelligibility. I also analyzed which phonological disorders have the greatest impact on speech intelligibility. The results show that more phonological processes occur in children with mild speech and language disorder and in two children with moderate speech and language disorder, but not in children with multiple disabilities and children with a hearing loss where we would expect more phonological processes due to the difficult diagnosis. More phonological processes occur in the processes of the system, namely: sliding, palatalization of affricates, palatalization of fricatives, vocal changes, anteriorization of fricatives and then some processes in structure: omission of consonants in consonant structure and epenthesis. The results of the teachers and parents were generally similar. We can conclude that phonological processes and other development factors reduce intelligibility. If there are a lot of phonological processes in speech, the speech intelligibility is lower.

Slepota in slabovidnost lahko pri otrocih, ki usvajajo govor in jezik, negativno vplivata na govorno-jezikovno kompetentnost ter zmožnost socialne interakcije. V svojem magistrskem delu se osredotočam na govorno-jezikovne značilnosti predšolskih slepih in slabovidnih otrok ter ugotavljam, kaj je značilno za njihovo izražanje ter razumevanje. V teoretičnem delu opisujem razvoj govora in jezika na splošno, nato pa nadaljujem z govorom in jezikom pri slepih in slabovidnih otrocih. Opisujem predvsem govorno-jezikovno obdobje in predstavljam govorno-jezikovne značilnosti po posameznih področjih. Pri govorno-jezikovnem izražanju sem se usmerila na fonološko zmožnost in razumljivost govora ter gramatično, semantično in pragmatično zmožnost, v dodatnem poglavju pa sem nekaj pozornosti posvetila še govorno-jezikovnemu razumevanju. Empirični del sem oblikovala na podlagi študije govorno-jezikovnih značilnosti štirih slepih in slabovidnih otrok v predšolskem obdobju, kjer sem na podlagi že obstoječih lestvic v tujem jeziku prirejene lestvice ocenjevala govorno-jezikovno funkcioniranje po vseh zgoraj naštetih področjih. Rezultati kažejo, da na področju razumljivosti govora in fonološke zmožnosti otroci dosegajo nivo delne usvojenosti, enako kot pri gramatični zmožnosti, kjer posameznikom največ težav povzroča raba zaimkov. Dolžina povedi je z izjemo najmlajšega dečka pri otrocih glede na starost ustrezna, prav tako besedišče in nabor besed. Semantično zmožnost v splošnem sicer še usvajajo, pri enem od preučevanih otrok sem zaznala pojav verbalizmov. Tudi pragmatična zmožnost je še na stopnji usvajanja, največja odstopanja so se izkazala pri obnavljanju zgodbe v pravilnem vrstnem redu ter prostem pripovedovanju zgodbe, poleg pomanjkljivega opazovanja govorca z očmi med pogovorom. Pri preučevani slabovidni deklici v nekaterih situacijah prihaja tudi do rabe večjega deleža vprašanj ter pojava eholalij in produkcije nenavadnih glasov in vzklikov, česar pri ostalih otrocih ni bilo. Na področju govorno-jezikovnega razumevanja trije od štirih preučevanih otrok dosegajo mejnike za svojo starost in je receptivni jezik usvojen v celoti, četrti, najmlajši otrok, pa je na stopnji usvajanja. Na podlagi preučene literature in lastnih opažanj pri otrocih, vključenih v raziskavo, sem oblikovala ter podala še strategije za spodbujanje govorno-jezikovnega izražanja ter razumevanja pri slepih in slabovidnih otrocih, z namenom pomoči otroku, staršem in strokovnjakom. Blindness and visual impairment can have a negative influence on the speech and language development and social interaction of young children who are learning how to speak. In my masters dissertation I focus on the speech and language characteristics of blind and visually impaired preschool children and discover what is characteristic of their expression and comprehension. In the theoretical part I describe the development of speech and language in general and then turn to the speech and language of blind and visually impaired children. I describe the linguistic language development and present different fields of speech and language characteristics. When discussing expression through speech and language I have turned especially to phonological capacity and the comprehensibility of speech and grammatical, semantic and pragmatic capacity while in an additional chapter I have given some attention to speech and language comprehension. The empirical section is based on a study of the speech and language characteristics of four blind and visually impaired preschool children. I used a scale adapted from foreign language scales to evaluate their functioning in all the above areas. Results show that in terms of comprehensibility of speech and phonological capacity, the children partially assimilate this skill. The same is the case for grammatical capacity where individuals have most trouble with the use of pronouns. Utterance length was in accordance with the norm for children of that age (with the exception of the youngest child), as was vocabulary. In general they are still acquiring semantic capacity and I noted the use of verbalisms by one of the children. Pragmatic capacity is also still being acquired. The largest deviations were in repeating stories in the right order and free story-telling, besides insufficient visual observation of the speaker during conversation. In the study of a visually impaired girl we noticed that in some situations more questions were posed, there was some echolalia and some unusual sounds and exclamations were emitted that were not detected in the other children. In the field of speech and language comprehension, three of the four studied children attained the normal level for their age-group and receptive language was mastered in its entirety. The fourth and youngest child, meanwhile, is still in the process of mastering these skills. On the basis of literature I have studied and my own observations of children, including this study, I have formed and proposed strategies for promoting speech and language expression and comprehension in blind and visually-impaired children with the aim of helping children, parents and professionals.

Slovnična zmožnost je del širše jezikovne zmožnosti in zajema védenje in pravilno rabo oblikoslovnih in skladenjskih pravil pri tvorbi posameznih besed, besednih zvez, stavkov in povedi. Otroci slovnično zmožnost postopoma usvajajo v prvih letih svojega življenja in z njo pridobivajo znanje za uspešno komunikacijo. O razvoju slovnične zmožnosti slovensko govorečih otrok (razvojnih in starostnih mejnikih) piše majhno število avtorjev, prav tako pa se zaradi odsotnosti ustreznih standardiziranih testov razvoj slovnične zmožnosti ocenjuje predvsem na podlagi sodbe strokovnjakov. Teoretični del predstavlja pregled znanja o razvoju slovnične zmožnosti in pregled možnih načinov ocenjevanja tega področja. V empiričnem delu je predstavljen instrument SLO-LARSP (protokol za jezikovno ocenjevanje, pomoč in pregled), ki na ravni stavka, besedne zveze in besede analizira otrokove izjave, pridobljene s pomočjo transkripcije posnetka interakcije med otrokom in strokovnjakom. SLO-LARSP je slovenska različica profila LARSP avtorja Davida Crystala, ki ga je v sedemdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja razvil za jezikovno ocenjevanje in načrtovanje terapije. Profil SLO-LARSP je še v fazi prirejanja za slovenski jezik in empirični del predstavlja prvi preizkus profila na desetih triletnih otrocih. Preizkus je pokazal, da je profil zelo informativen, ekonomičen z vidika materialnih sredstev, zahteva pa veliko časa za celotno izvedbo in veliko znanja s področja jezikoslovja. Izkazalo se je tudi, da je nekatere dele profila potrebno še dodatno prirediti, zato je v sklepu predstavljena nova različica profila z zajetimi spremembami. Magistrsko delo predstavlja novost v slovenski logopedski stroki, saj ponuja instrument za oceno razvoja slovnične zmožnosti, ki bo oplemenitil logopedov nabor pripomočkov za kakovostno diagnostiko govora, jezika in komunikacije. Grammatical competence is a part of the wider linguistic competence and consists of knowledge and the right use of morphological and syntactical rules when producing individual words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Children are gradually gaining grammatical competence in the first years of their life and through it the knowledge for a successful communication. Few authors write about the development of grammatical competence of Slovene-speaking children (developmental and age milestones). Additionally, the lack of the standardized tests results in the assessment of development of grammatical competence, which is based only on the judgment of experts. Theoretical part presents a review of the knowledge about the development of grammatical competence and the possible ways of assessing this area. Empirical part presents SLO-LARSP (Slovenian Language Assessment, Remediation and Screening Procedure) – an instrument which analyses child's utterances on sentence, clause, phrase and word level, gained by recording and transcribing child-expert interaction. SLO-LARSP is a Slovenian version of LARSP profile, which was made in 70’s by the author David Crystal in order to assess children's language and plan the therapy. SLO-LARSP profile is still in the phase of adaptation for the Slovene language and the empirical part presents the first use of the profile with ten three-year-old children. This test showed that SLO-LARSP profile is highly informative and economical from material point of view nevertheless, it demands a lot of time for the entire profiling procedure and quite a linguistic knowledge. The test also showed that some parts of the profile need additional adaptation – the final part of this thesis proposes the new version of SLO-LARSP profile that contains several alternations. This master thesis is a novelty in the Slovenian speech and language therapy field, since it offers an instrument for the assessment of the development of grammatical competence, which will enrich the therapist's collection of devices for quality speech, language and communication diagnostics.

V zadnjih letih se v razvojnem obdobju namenja vedno večjo pozornost osebam z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami. Posledično so tudi vedno večje potrebe po natančnejši diagnostiki in natančno zastavljenih logopedskih obravnavah. Zato so vedno večje zahteve po natančnejših ocenjevalnih testih. Ker v slovenskem prostoru ni veliko standardiziranih in nestandardiziranih preskusov za ugotavljanje govorno jezikovnega razvoja pri otrocih, bi potrebovali celosten test, ki bi obsegal vsa področja govorno-jezikovnega razvoja. Zaradi zgoraj navedenega sem se odločila, da se v svoji magistrski nalogi osredotočim na to temo. Z magistrskim delom sem izvedla pilotsko študijo instrumentarija Baterija govorno-jezikovnega razvoja pri otrocih z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami od 4. do 12. leta starosti (ital. Batteria per la Valutazione del Linguaggio in bambini dai 4 ai 12 anni, v nadaljevanju BVL_4-12). Testno baterijo za ocenjevanje govorno-jezikovnih zmožnosti so sestavili Andrea Marini, Luigi Marotta, Sara Bulgheroni ter Franco Fabbro (2014) in je diagnostični instrumentarij za ocenjevanje govorno-jezikovnih zmožnosti od 4. do 12. leta starosti. Nastal je s ciljem ocenjevanja govorno-jezikovnih zmožnosti pri otrocih v italijanskem jeziku, prvi avtor prvotne različice Marini pa spodbuja adaptacijo testa v jezike bližnjih držav ter jezikovnih manjšin v Italiji. V teoretičnem delu sem opredelila komunikacijo, splošna ter bolj specifična področja govorno-jezikovnega razvoja in predstavila obstoječe instrumentarije/teste, ki obstajajo na logopedskem področju. Prevod in priredbo instrumentarija, ki je nastal v sodelovanju z Ozbič, Kogovšek in Novšak Brce, sem preverila na 30 osebah (15 ženskah in 15 moških). Cilj pilotske študije je bil ugotoviti ustreznost prevoda in priredbe za skupino otrok z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami ter uporabnost pri otrocih z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami. Za tovrstno raziskavo sem se odločila, ker v Sloveniji na področju logopedskega dela nimamo ustreznih instrumentarijev, s katerimi bi lahko podali natančnejšo diagnozo. Priredba je del projekta, ki se dogaja na Pedagoški fakulteti v Ljubljani, z naslovom: Oblikovanje slovenskega fonološkega preskusa in prevod ter adaptacija instrumenta "Batteria per la Valutazione del Linguaggio in bambini dai 4 ai 12 anni (BVL_4-12), avtorjev Andrea Marinija, Luigija Marotte, Sare Bulgheroni in Franca Fabbra, kjer je vodja dr. Martina Ozbič. In the last years, the studies regarding people with speech and language disorders are focused on child development. Consequently, a growing need has emerged for more accurate diagnosis and precise objective speech therapy. Because of this, the demand for more accurate assessment tests is increasing. As nowadays the Slovenian area is characterized by the lack of standardized and non-standardized tests for speech and language development in children, we would need a comprehensive test covering all the areas of speech and language development. For the above reasons, I decided to focus my master's thesis on that topic. In my thesis, I conducted a pilot study using the speech and language assessment Battery in children with speech disorders from 4 to 12 years of age (ital. Batteria per la Valutazione del Linguaggio in bambini dai 4 ai 12 anni, BVL_4-12). The test battery to assess speech and language skills was designed by Andrea Marini, Luigi Marotta, Sara Bulgheroni and Franco Fabbro (2014) and it is a diagnostic instrument for assessing speech and language skills from 4 to 12 years of age. It was built with the aim to evaluate the speech and language skills in children in the Italian language but Marini who is the author of the original version encourages the test adaptation in the languages of the neighboring countries and of the linguistic minorities in Italy. In the theoretical part, I gave a general definition of communication, and I defined more specific areas of speech and language development, and I described the tests used in the field of speech therapy. The test battery, translated and adapted from Italian to Slovenian language with the collaboration of Ozbič, Kogovšek and Novšak Brce, was applied on 30 subjects (15 women and 15 men). The aim of the pilot study was to determine the appropriateness of the translation and adaptation on a group of children with speech and language disorders and its usefulness in children with speech and language disorders. I chose this kind of research because, in Slovenia, in the area of speech therapy, we do not have the appropriate instruments to make an accurate diagnosis. The test translation and adaptation is a part of the project which takes place at the Faculty of Education in Ljubljana, entitled: Design and test of phonological Slovenian translation and adaptation of the instrument "Batteria per la Valutazione del Linguaggio in bambini dai 4 ai 12 anni (BVL_4-12)" (authors Andrea Marini, Luigi Marotta, Sara Bulgheroni and Franco Fabbro), whose leader is Dr. Martina Ozbič.

V Sloveniji se v redne programe osnovne šole izvaja integracija otrok s posebnimi potrebami. Znotraj rednega programa izobraževanja se jim zagotavlja dodatna strokovna in učna pomoč, s prilagoditvami. Ni znano, ali so starši in otroci zadovoljni z obstoječim izobraževalnim sistemom in z izvajanjem vzgojno izobraževalnega procesa, zato nas je zanimalo, kakšno je njihovo osebno mnenje in njihove dosedanje izkušnje ter kakšni so njihovi predlogi za izboljšanje sistema. V diplomskem delu smo s pomočjo raziskave ugotavljali, kakšno je zadovoljstvo staršev in otrok glede izvajanja dodatne strokovne in učne pomoči, ali so zadovoljni z izvajanjem prilagoditev, kje in kakšne težave opažajo ter kako bi lahko izboljšali zagotavljanje ustreznih prilagoditev vsakemu posamezniku posebej. Kvalitativno besedno analizo mnenj staršev in otrok smo naredili s pomočjo opravljenih intervjujev s starši in z otroci s posebnimi potrebami, ki so vključeni v redni program vzgoje in izobraževanja. Rezultati raziskave so pokazali, da so starši v splošnem z dodatno strokovno in učno pomočjo zadovoljni, težave pa se pojavljajo pri interpretaciji in izvajanju prilagoditev otroci pa so v splošnem z izobraževanjem v srednji šoli bolj zadovoljni kot z izobraževanjem v osnovni šoli. In Slovenia, regular elementary school programmes integrate children with special needs. Within the scope of a regular education programme, such children receive professional and teaching assistance with adjustments. It is not known whether parents and children are pleased with the existing educational system and implementation of educational process, which is why we inquired about their opinions and current experiences as well as their proposals for improving the system. Based on a research study, the diploma thesis presents the satisfaction of parents and children regarding the implementation of additional professional and educational assistance, the implementation of adjustments, problems that they have noticed and any improvements to ensure suitable personalised adjustments. The qualitative textual analysis of the parents and children’s opinions was performed using interviews with parents and children with special needs who are included in a regular educational programme. Research results have shown that parents are generally satisfied with additional professional and educational assistance, but that problems do occur in the interpretation and implementation of adjustments children, however, are generally more satisfied with secondary education than primary.

Komunikacija med materjo in otrokom pomembno vpliva na razvoj otrokovih govornih spretnosti. Slepota ali slabovidnost omejuje dostop do podatkov iz okolice, kar lahko negativno vpliva tudi na razvoj komunikacije med materjo in otrokom. V svojem magistrskem delu se osredotočam prav na to, kako se spremeni komunikacija med materjo in otrokom zaradi otrokove motnje vida. V teoretičnem delu najprej predstavim pomen vida v komunikaciji, nadaljujem pa z predstavitvijo predjezikovne in jezikovne komunikacije. Posebno poglavje posvetim lastnostim govora matere otrok z motnjami vida ter razlikam v komunikaciji glede na stopnjo izgube vida, temama, katerima se posvetim tudi v empiričnem delu. Za namene raziskave sem intervjuvala štiri matere otrok z motnjo vida s pridruženimi motnjami in brez njih. V raziskavi sem skušala preučiti komunikacijo mater z otroki z motnjami vida nasploh (geste, asertivnost, responzivnost, sporazumevalne spretnosti …). Zanimalo me je tudi, kaj matere smatrajo kot učinkovite strategije in načine vzpostavljanja uspešne interakcije ter ali so bile deležne svetovanja s tega področja. Skušala sem izpostaviti razlike v komunikacije glede na otrokovo stopnjo izgube vida. Rezultati raziskave so pokazali, da so matere generalno odzivne na otrokove komunikacijske znake, bodisi nejezikovne, bodisi jezikovne, ter da pri vzpostavljanju interakcije izhajajo iz interesa otrok. Menijo, da svojega lastnega stila interakcije niso drastično spreminjale zaradi motnje vida, prav tako pa niso bile deležne svetovanja s tega področja v okviru zgodnje obravnave. Kot najpomembnejšo strategijo vzpostavljanja uspešne komunikacije navajajo prilagajanje interesu in razpoloženju otroka, preostale strategije pa se razlikujejo in so odvisne od materinih izkušenj z interakcijo mati-otrok. Z zloženko, oblikovano na podlagi preučene literature in rezultatov raziskave, bom materam ponudila nasvete za vzpostavljanje uspešne komunikacije z otrokom z motnjo vida. Communication between mother and child has a significant impact on the development of children's language skills. Blindness or visual impairment limits access to information from the environment, which may have a negative impact on the development of communication between mother and child. In my master's thesis I focused on how the communication between mother and child alters due to visual impairment. In the theoretical part I introduced the importance of visual input in communication and then continued with introduction of prelinguistic and linguistic communication. I devoted a special chapter to the characteristics of communication between mother and child with speech difficulties and to differences in communication depending on the degree of vision loss. These two topics are also what I discuss about in the empirical part. For research purposes, I interviewed four mothers of children that are visually impaired with and without any other associated disorders. In my research I examined communication between mothers and their children with visual disabilities in general (gestures, assertiveness, responsiveness, communication skills, etc.). I also wanted to find out what mothers consider as effective strategies and ways of establishing a successful interaction and if they have received any guidance in this area. I tried to highlight the differences in communication depending on the child's degree of vision loss. The results showed that mothers are generally more responsive to the child's communication signs, may they be verbal or non-verbal. Mothers are also more attentive to child's interests when it comes to establishing interaction. They believe that their own style of interaction has not dramatically changed because of visual impairment, neither have they received any guidance in this area in the context of early treatment. As the most important strategy for establishing effective communication, mothers stated adaptation to the interests and moods of the child. Other strategies varied and depended on the mother's experience of the mother-child interaction. The leaflet, designed and based on studied scientific literature and the results of the survey, will offer mothers some guidelines for establishing a successful communication with their visually impaired child.

Jezik je temeljno sredstvo sporazumevanja. Vsak človek uporablja jezik, ki je sestav elementov oziroma procesov. Fonem, grafem, beseda, branje, pisanje, razumevanje, ter mimika in kretnje so del našega jezika ... Oseba lahko govori en jezik (prvi ali materni jezik) ali pa več jezikov. Drugega jezika se lahko naučimo v otroštvu ali kasneje v odrasli dobi. Stopnja znanja obeh jezikov se od človeka do človeka razlikuje in se lahko z učenjem ter pravilno uporabo tudi izboljšuje. Če pa posameznik jezika ne uporablja, lahko njegovo znanje z leti upada. Obstajajo tudi različne bolezni, ki vplivajo na uporabo poznanih jezikov. Med najbolj značilne štejemo afazijo. To je motnja, ki nastane zaradi okvare določenega področja v možganih ali zaradi bolezni osrednjega živčevja. Najpogosteje se to zgodi zaradi možganske kapi, tumorjev ali možganskih poškodb, kot je udarec v glavo. Afazija je vezana na govorjeni jezik, ki je že razvit. Za tovrstno motnjo so značilne predvsem težave v tekočnosti govora. Resnost in obseg afazije sta odvisni od mesta poškodbe v možganih in njene težavnosti, predhodnega jezikovnega znanja ter osebnosti posameznika. Niti v dveh primerih se bolezen ne kaže na popolnoma enak način, vsakega prizadene nekoliko drugače. V teoretičnem delu diplomske naloge sem se osredotočila na štiri glavna področja, in sicer: nevrološki vidiki, nevrolingvistika, afazija ter slovensko-italijanska in italijansko-slovenska dvojezičnost. Glede na izbrano temo sem za empirični del uporabila test za afazijo pri dvojezičnih osebah (Bilingual Aphasia Test – BAT). Želela sem ugotoviti ustreznost testa glede na spol, starost in izobrazbo ter preveriti, ali se pri Brocovi afaziji (na frontalno-senčničnem režnju leve možganske poloble) določeno jezikovno področja bolje odziva v prednostnem ali drugem oziroma učnem jeziku. Testirala sem deset dvojezičnih oseb, starih med 55 in 80 let, ki so imele nevrološko okvaro na Brocovem področju ter živijo na dvojezičnem območju Slovenskega primorja. Z dobljenimi rezultati smo potrdili, da spol, materni jezik in jezik okolja ne vplivajo na izide BAT testa, da pa nanj vplivajo starost, težavnost poškodbe ter materni in učni jezik. Language is a fundamental element of communication. Each person uses a language which is an assembly of elements and processes. Phoneme, grapheme, word, reading, writing, understanding and expressions and gestures are part of our language ... A person can only speak one language (the first or mother toung), or one can speak several languages. Other language can be learned in childhood or later on in adulthood. The degree of knowledge of two languages varies from person to person and can be improved with learning and proper use. Mother tongue and second language can be improved over time, but can also recede if it not used. Various diseases can also have an affect on use of already known languages. Among the most common is considered aphasia. This is a problem caused by the failure of certain areas in the brain or due to defect of the central nervous system. For the most part aphasia occures as a result of stroke and tumors, or brain damage, such as a blow to the head. Aphasia is constrained to the already developed spoken language. In aphasias are characterized in particular the problem of the flow of speech. Problems with words are common in aphasias … Severity and scope of the aphasia depends on the location and severity of brain injury, transitional language skills and personality of the individual. No two people with aphasia are identical, aphasia is different for everyone. In the theoretical part I focused on four main areas, namely: Neurology, Neurolinguistics, Aphasia and Slovenian-Italian and Italian-Slovenian bilingualism. Relating to the chosen theme I used empirical test for aphasia in bilingual persons (Bilingual Aphasia Test - BAT). I wanted to determine the suitability of the test according to gender, age and education, and to check whether the Broca's aphasia is determined linguistic areas to better respond in first language or in second language. I tested 10 bilingual persons aged 55 to 80 with damage in Broca's area living in a bilingual area of the Slovenian coast, who have had neurological impairment. Although The results we got confirmed that gender, first language and language of the environment does not affect the results of BAT test, we discovored that age and language of the education do have an influence on the results of BAT test.

Amiotrofična lateralna skleroza (ALS) je napredujoča nevrodegenerativna bolezen, ki prizadene motorične nevrone centralnega živčnega sistema osebe, kar povzroči slabenje, spastičnost in atrofijo mišic telesa. Začetni znaki se najpogosteje pojavljajo v zgornjih in spodnjih udih, pogosta značilnost ALS-a pa je tudi prisotnost bulbarnih simptomov, kot sta dizartrija (težave pri govoru) in disfagija (težave pri požiranju). Progresija teh simptomov močno vpliva na življenje obolelih z ALS, saj lahko znižujejo njihovo kakovost življenja in dobo preživetja. Senzorične funkcije običajno ostanejo neprizadete. Dandanes je že znano, da imajo osebe z ALS oškodovane tudi kognitivne funkcije. Napredovanje bolezni postopoma privede do paralize hotnega mišičja in s tem do nezmožnosti gibanja, govora, požiranja in dihanja obolelih oseb. Le-te običajno umrejo zaradi odpovedi dihalnih funkcij. Običajno ALS nastopi v odrasli dobi, moški obolevajo nekoliko pogosteje kot ženske. Vzrok za razvoj bolezni je še vedno neznan, razen v 5 – 10 % primerov, ko je bolezen familiarne (torej dedne) oblike. Povrečna doba preživetja oseb z ALS je okrog treh let. ALS še vedno ostaja neozdravljiva bolezen. Obravnava obolelih je najučinkovitejša z multidisciplinarnim pristopom, »zdravljenje« pa ostaja usmerjeno v obvladovanje simptomov in ohranjanje kvalitete življenja teh oseb. Glede na to, da je ALS pri nas skoraj nepoznana bolezen in predvsem ker povzroča izgubljanje zmožnosti komuniciranja osebe s sogovorniki, sem želela izvedeti več o pomoči bolnikom z ALS in vlogi logopeda pri tem. Med zbiranjem dostopne strokovne literature sem ugotovila, da je v slovenskem jeziku napisanega zelo malo o tej hudi bolezni, še posebej malo pa je literature za področje logopedskih obravnav. Zato sem se odločila, da preko analiziranja in proučevanja informacij iz zbrane literature ter baz podatkov strnem informacije o ALS, opišem delo logopeda z osebami z ALS oz. napišem »priročnik« o tej bolezni. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects motor neurons of the central nervous system, which causes weakness, spasticity and muscular atrophy. Early signs most commonly appear in upper and lower limbs, but ALS also frequently causes bulbar symptoms like dysarthria (difficulty speaking) and dysphagia (difficulty swallowing). Progression of these symptoms heavily affects the lives of ALS patients, because they can lower their quality of life and life expectancy. Sensory functions usually remain unaffected. We know today that ALS patients' cognitive functions are also affected. Disease progression slowly leads to voluntary muscle paralysis and consequent inability to move, speak, swallow and breathe. The patients usually die due to respiratory failure. ALS usually manifests in adults, men are affected somewhat more frequently than women. The cause of the disease remains unknown, except in 5 – 10 % of familial (and therefore genetic) cases. The average life expectancy of ALS patients is around three years. The disease is still incurable. Multidisciplinary treatment is most effective and remains centered on symptom management and the preservation of the quality of life. Due to the fact that in Slovenia ALS is an almost unknown disease which causes the loss of communication abilities, I wanted to learn more about the ways of helping ALS patients and the logopaedist's role in their treatment. During my search for literature I found out that very little of it exists in Slovenian and especially little in the field of logopaedic treatment. I have therefore decided to analyse and study the information from gathered literature and databases, sum it up, describe the logopaedist's role in working with ALS patients and write a »manual« about the disease.

Avtistična motnja je motnja komunikacije, socialne interakcije in imaginacije, ki pomembno vpliva na vse ravni in področja življenja. Magistrska naloga preučuje poklicno izobraževanje dijakov z avtistično motnjo vključenih v Zavod za gluhe in naglušne Ljubljana (v nadaljevanju ZGNL). Glavni cilj raziskave je bil preučiti izvajanje odprtega kurikula (v nadaljevanju ODK) v programih poklicnega izobraževanja v rednih poklicnih šolah in ZGNL ter na podlagi študije primera predlagati prilagoditve in ustrezne načine izvajanja poklicnih programov za dijake z avtistično motnjo (v nadaljevanju AM). V ta namen sem analiziral priporočila in dejanske vsebine ODK v rednih šolah poklicnega izobraževanja. Preučil sem izvajanje prilagojenih vsebin ODK v ZGNL in poglobljeno raziskal ključne razlike med izvajanjem ODK v ZGNL in izvajanjem ODK v rednih šolah poklicnega izobraževanja. Rešitve dobre prakse sem iskal v tujini. Analiziral sem raziskave, opravljene v številnih evropskih državah, ki se ukvarjajo z izobraževanjem dijakov z AM. S primerjavo sem raziskal, kakšna so priporočila iz tujine glede izvajanja prilagojenih vsebin za dijake z AM, kako izvajanje prilagojenih vsebin ODK vpliva na dijake z AM v ZGNL in na koncu, ali je možno izoblikovati model poskusnega izvajanja vsebin ODK, ki bi se lahko uporabljal za večino dijakov z AM? Na koncu sem izvedel študijo primera na dijaku z AM, ki je bil vključen v nov modul ODK Priprava na življenje. Modul vključuje komunikacijo, socializacijo, še najbolj pa je namenjen iskanju poklicnih interesov in močnih področij posameznega dijaka z AM. Glavni cilj je bil, da bi z izvajanjem ur Priprava na življenje (v nadaljevanju PNŽ) spoznal spekter dijakovih avtističnih motenj, težav, reakcij, mišljenja, zanimanj in predvsem močnih področij, z namenom pravilne usmeritve v ustrezen poklicni program. Najprej sem spoznaval dijakove specifične lastnosti, reakcije, težave v načinu mišljenja, stopnji socializacije in komunikacije. V nadaljevanju sem dijaka preizkušal na več področjih splošne socializacije in komunikacije. Izpostavil sem ga nepričakovanim situacijam izven šole. V zadnjem delu sem dijaka intenzivno preizkušal na vseh močnih področjih. Izvajanje sem iz razreda preselil v prirejene delavnice. V treh letih intenzivnega ukvarjanja z dijakom z AM sem dodobra spoznal precej njegovih motenj, močnih in šibkih področij. Spoznal sem ga do te mere, da sem znal predvideti njegove reakcije. Na koncu sem spoznal tudi močna področja končni rezultat je bil preusmeritev v zanj primernejši poklicni program. Ponujeni odgovori so potrdili domnevo, da se lahko oblikuje poseben program, prilagojen dijakom z avtistično motnjo, vseeno pa moramo upoštevati dejstvo, da generalizacija vseh prilagoditev in posebnih vsebin izvajanja ODK zaradi heterogenosti dijakov z AM ni možna. Analize in rezultati študije primera nam ponujajo dobra izhodišča za nadaljnje raziskovanje. Autistic disorder is a disorder of communication, social interaction and imagination which considerably influences all the levels and areas of living. This master's thesis will explore vocational education of students with autistic disorder (henceforth, students with AD) attending Zavod za gluhe in naglušne Ljubljana (henceforth, ZGNL). The main goal of this research was to examine the implementation of the open curriculum (henceforth, OC) in vocational education programmes in mainstream vocational schools and in ZGNL, and on the basis of this study propose customizations and adequate ways of implementing vocational programmes for students with AD. For this purpose, I analysed the guidelines and the actual content of OC in mainstream vocational schools. I studied the implementation of the customized content of OC in ZGNL and conducted in-depth research into the key differences between the implementation of OC in ZGNL and the implementation of OC in mainstream vocational schools. I also looked for solutions in examples of good practice in other countries. I analysed the research performed in numerous European countries, dealing with the education of students with AD. I undertook comparative research of the guidelines from other countries regarding the implementation of customized content for students with AD, research into how the implementation of customized content of OC influences students with AD in ZGNL, and finally, research into whether it is possible to design a model of trial implementation of OC content which could be used for the majority of students with AD. In the end, I did a case study of a student with AD who was included in a new OC module called Priprava na življenje (Getting Ready for Life, henceforth, GRL). The module includes communication, socialization, and it is primarily geared towards finding vocational interests and the strong areas of the individual student with AD. The main goal was to determine the spectrum of the student's autistic disorder, issues, problems, reactions, way of thinking, interests, and above all, strong areas through the implementation of GRL lessons for the purpose of correct placement into a suitable vocational programme. At first I learned about the student's specific characteristics, reactions, problems in the way of thinking, level of socialization and communication. Subsequently, I tested the student in different areas of general socialization and communication. I subjected him to unexpected situations outside of school. In the final part I intensively tested the student in all of his strong areas. I moved the implementation from the classroom into customized workshops. In three years of intensive work with the student with AD, I became familiar with many of his disorders as well as his strong and weak areas quite well. I learned about him to the point of being able to predict his reactions. Finally, I also learned about his strong areas the final result was a placement into a programme more suited to his needs. The findings confirmed my supposition that a special programme customized for students with AD can be developed, but we nevertheless need to take into account the fact that a generalized application of all the customizations and special content of OC is not possible due to the heterogeneity among students with AD. The analysis and the results of the case study offer a good starting point for further research.

Govor in jezik v obdobju šolanja nista le sredstvo za sporazumevanje, ampak sta ključni sredstvi, ki otrokom omogočata, da lažje razumejo, usvajajo in izražajo znanje v procesu vzgoje in izobraževanja ter kasneje v življenju. Otrokom z govorno-jezikovno motnjo lahko ravno to obdobje predstavlja veliko stisko in oviro pri usvajanju in izražanju pridobljenega znanja ter pri vključevanju in vzpostavljanju konstruktivnih medvrstniških odnosov, če zanje niso uvedeni ustrezni pristopi s strani učiteljev, strokovnih delavcev (predvsem logopedov) in seveda s strani otrokovih staršev. Ravno iz tega sledi, da je potrebno otrokom oz. učencem z govorno-jezikovno motnjo v procesu vzgoje in izobraževanja prilagajati tako organizacijo kot tudi izvajanje pouka ter preverjanje in ocenjevanje znanja. Ključna oseba pri uvajanju sprememb v času pouka je učitelj. Iz tega razloga se diplomska naloga osredotoča na pristope razrednih učiteljev do učencev z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami v osnovnih šolah. Glede na temo diplomske naloge je v teoretičnem delu v grobem predstavljen koncept integracije, inkluzije, razlike med njima in kratek opis, kako se inkluzija odraža v procesu šolanja. Prav tako je opisan pomen socialne integracije in vpliv na osebe s posebnimi potrebami, torej tudi na učence z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami. Sledi opredelitev oseb s posebnimi potrebami, definiranje govorno-jezikovnih motenj, kjer so izpostavljene le tiste govorne in jezikovne motnje, ki se pri otrocih, ki so na podlagi odločb usmerjeni kot otroci z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami, najpogosteje pojavljajo v procesu šolanja. Izpostavljena je ključna vloga učitelja in prilagoditve, ki jih mora le-ta v procesu vzgoje in izobraževanja upoštevati pri učencih z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami. V diplomski nalogi je izpostavljen tudi pomen individualiziranega programa, pomen dodatne strokovne pomoči s strani logopedov in pomen medsebojnega sodelovanja med strokovnimi delavci, ki otroka z govorno-jezikovno motnjo obravnavajo in njihovimi starši. V raziskavo je bilo vključenih 40 učiteljev razredne stopnje, ki poučujejo na osnovnih šolah na območju Koroške. Cilj diplomskega dela je bil raziskati, kako učitelji na osnovnih šolah pristopajo do učencev s posebnimi potrebami, ki so že usmerjeni v program s prilagojenim izvajanjem in dodatno strokovno pomočjo kot učenci z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami. Namen raziskave je bil pridobiti natančnejši vpogled v to, kako učitelji sodelujejo z učenci, logopedi in starši otrok z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami ter katere metode, oblike in prilagoditve dela upoštevajo pri poučevanju učencev s tovrstnimi motnjami oz. primanjkljaji. Menimo, da nam bodo pridobljene informacije služile kot vodilo pri uspešnejšemu sodelovanju z učitelji in pri kvalitetnejšemu usmerjanju njihovega dela pri delu s tovrstnimi učenci v prihodnje. Rezultati raziskave so bili pridobljeni s pomočjo anketnega vprašalnika in predstavljeni na podlagi deskriptivne statistike v empiričnem delu naloge. Raziskava je razkrila, da učitelji v večini upoštevajo prilagoditve pri organizaciji in izvajanju pouka ter so pozorni na to, da učenci ne zamudijo oz., da ustrezno nadoknadijo zamujeno učno snov, ki je bila obravnavana v času, ko so bili le-ti odsotni zaradi individualnih logopedskih obravnav. Iz raziskave je bilo razvidno tudi to, da učitelji v večini pogosteje sodelujejo s starši otrok, ki imajo govorno-jezikovne motnje. Hkrati je bilo ugotovljeno, da so učitelji aktivno vključeni pri pripravi in evalvaciji individualiziranega programa, ter da jim aktivnejše sodelovanje z logopedi pomaga, da lažje razumejo učence z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami in jim tako ustrezneje prilagajajo pouk in usvajanje, izražanje naučene učne snovi. Vsi anketirani učitelji so navedli, da so učenci z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami s strani sošolcev pozitivno sprejeti in da jih je večina kos izobraževalnim zahtevam programa, v katerega so usmerjeni. Kot težavo so izpostavili prekratko prisotnost logopeda, zato predlagajo, da bi bil na vsaki šoli zaposlen logoped, ali da bi bil lahko večkrat v tednu prisoten na šoli mobilni logoped, s katerim bi učitelji lahko pogosteje kontaktirali in izmenjevali izkušnje ter morebitne pomisleke, težave pri poučevanju le-teh učencev. Učitelji so kot oviro pri poučevanju in prilagajanju vzgojno-izobraževalnega procesa izpostavili tudi pomanjkanje znanja in izkušenj ter potrebo po pridobivanju le-teh. Speech and language are not only means of communication for schoolchildren, but also a way for children to comprehend and understand knowledge acquired during the education process and through adulthood. Unless proper educational approaches are utilised by teachers, speech therapists, and, of course, parents, children suffering from speech and language disorders may often experience difficulties and obstacles in comprehending the knowledge they have acquired, and establishing meaningful peer relations. As a result, children suffering from speech and language disorders require that their learning environment (the institution, the learning process, and the grading system) be adapted to meet their specific needs. The key person in establishing changes in the classroom is the teacher. For this reason, this thesis focuses on the approaches taken by elementary school teachers in dealing with children with speech and language disorders. Given the theme of the thesis, the theoretical section roughly outlines the concepts of integration and inclusion, the differences between them, and a short description of how inclusion is reflected in the educational process. We also describe the relevance of social integration for persons with special needs, including children with speech and language disorders. The next steps are defining persons with special needs, and defining speech and language disorders, where emphasis is put solely on the disorders appearing most often in the schooling process with children who have been officially recognised by the state as suffering from speech and language disorders. The thesis also exposes the significance of individually oriented programs, additional assistance from speech therapists, and the role played by cooperation between the parents and speech therapists in contact with the child. The survey performed included 40 elementary school teachers from the Koroška region teaching the first period, from the first to the fifth grade. The aim of the thesis is to establish how primary school teachers approach pupils with speech and language disorders and pupils with special needs already included in a specialised programme and receiving additional help. The research focused on gaining insight into how teachers cooperate with pupils, speech therapists, and the parents of pupils with speech and language disorders, and which methods, forms, and special work practises are being considered when dealing with pupils with these types of disorders and deficiencies. We believe that the information gathered will serve as a guideline in improving the success of the cooperation with teachers, and give the ability to better guide their efforts in working with these pupils in the future. The survey was conducted in the form of a questionnaire, and the results are presented with descriptive statistics in the empirical part of the thesis. Our survey has revealed that teachers tend to adapt their methods of preparing and managing their classes, that they put care into making sure their pupils are not late to class, and that they make up for the material that they have missed while attending their individual speech therapy courses. We were able to determine that teachers are more likely to cooperate with parents of children with speech and language disorders. The survey also reveals that teachers are actively involved in preparing and evaluating individually oriented programs, and that they benefit from actively working with speech therapists in better understanding pupils with speech and language disorders. As a result, these pupils then receive a more suitable treatment in class, and find it easier to comprehend and express the material covered. All respondents indicated that the pupils with speech and language disorders are able to cope with the demands of the curricula, and are well received by their classmates. One of the concerns expressed by the respondents was the insufficient amount of time that speech therapists are present, suggesting that that each school should have one on staff, or that one could be present at the school several times a week. This would enable teachers to be in contact with the specialists more often in order to exchange opinions or point out difficulties in teaching pupils with speech and language disorders. Teachers have pointed out the lack of knowledge and experience and the acquisition thereof as one of the difficulties in teaching and adapting the education process.

Glasba ima pozitiven vpliv na celosten razvoj človeka. Njen vpliv se začne že v prenatalnem obdobju, saj plod že v maternici zaznava glasove in razvija slušni sistem. Prav slednji pa je temelj nadaljnjega razvoja govora in jezika. Percepcija in razumevanje govora sta vodena iz obeh hemisfer. Leva hemisfera je pomembna za semantične in logične znake govora, desna pa za jezikovno prozodijo, ki predstavlja kombinacijo tonov, intonacije, ritma in poudarkov na posameznih besedah ali zlogih, ki predstavljajo misel, ki se prenaša. Vse naštete elemente pa vsebuje tudi glasba. Otroka, še preden razume pomen besed, očarajo ritmi in melodije ter druge glasbene lastnosti govora, ki ga posluša. Kljub temu da sta govor in glasba v možganih ločena, se na določenih področjih dotikata drug drugega in pomembno vplivata na medsebojni razvoj. Namen diplomskega dela je bilo poiskati povezave med elementi govora in jezika ter glasbe. V prvem delu smo skozi preučevanja različne literature poiskali povezave in vplive glasbe na razvoj govora in jezika. V drugem delu smo sestavili predlog programa (vaje) za spodbujanje fonološkega zavedanja in verbalnega spomina s pomočjo glasbenih dejavnosti, ki sta temelj za kasnejše opismenjevanje. Vaje smo razdelili v 6 sklopov. Vsak sklop vsebuje od 3 do 5 vaj. Večina vaj ima različno število podvaj, ki so vsebinsko povezane. Vse vaje smo preizkusili v skupini sedmih otrok ter individualno z učencem z odločbo. Z akcijskim raziskovanjem smo jih sproti evalvirali ter jih na podlagi ugotovitev, pridobljenih pri izvajanju vaj in odzivih učencev, spreminjali in izboljševali. Skozi proces sestavljanja in evalvacije smo prišli do zaključka, da lahko za urjenje fonološkega zavedanja in verbalnega spomina uporabimo različne glasbene elemente ter da jih med seboj težje ločimo, saj se tako kot pri jeziku tudi v glasbi med seboj prelivajo in dopolnjujejo. Izdelani predlog programa (vaje) lahko uporabljajo v poljubnem vrstnem redu ter v različnih učnih situacijah (skupinsko ali individualno). Težavnost vaj se lahko prilagaja posameznikom in njegovim sposobnostim. Prav tako se lahko uporabljajo v različnih delih učne ure, po potrebi pa se prilagaja tudi vsebina. Music has a positive impact on the comprehensive development of man. Its influence starts early in prenatal period, where foetus in the womb perceives sounds and develops auditory system. That is the foundation for the further development of speech and language. Perception and comprehension of speech are guided from both hemispheres. The left hemisphere is important for the semantic and logical signs of speech and the right hemisphere for linguistic prosody, which is a combination of tones, intonation, rhythm and emphasis on certain words or syllables that represent the transmitted thought. All these elements are also present in music. Before understanding the meaning of words a child is fascinated by rhythms, melodies and other musical characteristics of speech. Despite the fact that both speech and music are separated in the brain, there are areas touching each other and having a significant impact on the mutual development. The purpose of the thesis was to find connections between the speech, language and music. In the first part we studied a variety of literature to find links and effects of music on the development of speech and language. In the second part, we put together a program (exercises) to promote the development of phonological awareness and verbal memory, through musical activities which are the foundation for later literacy. The exercises are divided into six sections. Each section contains from three to five exercises. All exercises were tested in a group of seven children and with one child in individual learning situation. Through the research we continuously evaluated the exercises and according to the obtained findings and children responses we changed and improved the exercises. Through the process of drafting and evaluation, we came to the conclusion that for practicing phonological awareness and verbal memory various musical elements can be used and that it is difficult to distinguish between them since, as in the language and in music, they blend and complement each other. The program (exercises) can be used in any order and in different learning situations (group or individual). The difficulty of the exercises can be adapted to the individual and his abilities. It can also be used in different parts of the lesson.