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Multi drug resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae are strains that can withstand the therapeutic effects of three or more antibiotics, mostly the first line antibiotics, which include Chloramphenicol, Cotrimoxazole, Streptomycin, Tetracycline, Sulfonamides, Trimethoprim and Ampicillin. This review attempts to highlight various antigenic properties such as; capsule, pili, various pnemococcal enzymes and specific pneumococcal proteins responsible for multi-drug resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. In addition, this review further highlights the challenges of multi drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae among developing countries such as Nigeria such as the influence of drug resistance on patients, the influence of drug resistance on pharmaceutical industries, the influence of drug resistance on antimicrobial therapy, the influence of drug resistance on manpower and the influence of drug resistance on government resources; and how these problems can be prevented through measures such as; the production of new antibiotics and vaccines, the acquisition of modern health facilities and techniques for easy detection of multidrug resistant strains and the development of adequate drug storage facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Over time, herbal plants and their various components have been major sources of therapeutic medicine for man. A comparative study was carried out to determine the phytochemical components and antibacterial activities of the different crude extracts of Euphorbia heterophylla and Vitellaria paradoxa roots on four enteric bacteria; Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris. Methodology: Root samples of E. heterophylla and V. paradoxa were collected, washed, air dried and processed to fine powder in the microbiology laboratory of Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria. Crude extract of the root samples was done by the cold maceration technique using four solvents (chloroform, methanol, petroleum ether and water). Phytochemical analysis of the extracts was done using previously described technique, and in vitro antibacterial activities of different concentrations of the extracts (50-200 mg/ml) and a standard antibiotic (ciprofloxacin) were tested on four enteric bacteria (S. typhi, S. flexneri, E. coli, P. vulgaris) by the agar diffusion test. In vivo antibacterial activities of the two plants were also tested by daily oral administration of 2000 mg/kg bodyweight (for 7 days) of each extract on inbred mice infected through intraperitoneal inoculation of an infective dose of each of the four enteric bacteria. Data were computed as mean ± standard error and analysed by the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 9.4. Associations between variables were determined using analysis of variance (ANOVA), with p < 0.05 considered as significant value. Results: Phytochemical analysis of the crude extracts of both plants revealed the presence of cardiac glycosides, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins but V. paradoxa contain more carbohydrates and starch, and less phlobatannins, compared to E. heterophylla. In vitro assay showed dose-dependent antibacterial activity of the methanol, aqueous and chloroform (but not petroleum ether) extracts of the two plant roots. The in vitro antibacterial activities of the different extracts of V. paradoxica extracts were significantly higher (higher mean diameters of inhibition zones) than those of E. heterophylla (p<0.05), and methanol extracts gave the highest antibacterial effects. However, the root extract of E. heterophylla gave a higher antibacterial activity with the in vivo assay on inbred mice than V. paradoxa, and methanol extracts of the two plant extracts gave the highest in vivo activity, followed by aqueous extract and least activity was obtained with the chloroform extract. Conclusion: Crude extracts of E. heterophylla and V. paradoxa roots produce antibacterial activity against enteric Gram-negative bacteria pathogens involved in diarrhoea illnesses. Further researches should be directed towards isolation and characterization of the active compounds in the crude extracts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: A study was carried out to determine the antibacterial activity of Euphorbia heterophylla crude extracts on four enteric bacterial organisms namely; Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, E.coli and Proteus vulgaris. Method: The clinical isolates of Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, E.coli and Proteus vulgaris were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility test using agar diffusion technique. Result: Methanolic and aqueous crude extract produced clear zones of inhibition at concentration ranging from 100 to 200mg/ml at 24 hours and as the time increased to 48hours and 72hours, the antibacterial activity decreased. Two thousand milligram per kilogram body weight of the crude extracts was administered to the mice orally, and single death accompanied each group of mice that were administered with methanolic crude extract of the leaf. Conclusion: Euphorbia heterophylla crude extract could be a potential source of antimicrobial agent for the treatment of diseases associated with enteric organisms such as Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, E.coli and Proteus vulgaris. Further studies should be directed towards isolation and characterization of the active compound in the crude extracts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out to determine the coliform contamination of public boreholes and pipe borne water supplies within Bosso town. Twenty (20) water samples comprising of 10 each of borehole and pipe borne samples were aseptically collected from Bosso Town and analyzed using membrane filtration technique. The results obtained revealed that most (60.0%) of the water samples from the borehole sources except the samples from Rafin-Yashi, Maikunkele, Federal University of Technology (F.U.T) Minna, Tudun Fulani, contained coliform counts within 10cfu/100ml while all (100.0%) of the pipe borne water samples had coliform counts above 10cfu/100ml. The organisms isolated included species of Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Salmonella, Shigella, Clostridium, Bacillus, Yersinia and Serratia. E.coli had the highest frequency of occurrence (20%) followed by Staphylococcus aureus (11.7%), Salmonella spp (11.7%), Shigella spp (11.7%), Clostridium spp (8.3), Streptococcus faecalis (8.3%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (6.7%), Bacillus subtilis (6.7%), Streptococcus pyrogenes (5%), Klebsiella spp (3.3%), Proteus vulgaris (3.3%), Yersinia spp (1.7%) and Serratia spp (1.7%). This study revealed that pipe borne water and borehole water samples were contaminated in Bosso, with greater contamination observed with pipe borne water. This highlights the need for continuous assessment of the quality of public water supply and intervention measures to prevent outbreak of water-borne diseases in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]