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Background: Many neurodegenerative diseases develop only later in life, when cells in the nervous system lose their structure or function. In many forms of neurodegenerative diseases, this late-onset phenomenon remains largely unexplained., Results: Analyzing single-cell RNA sequencing from Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Huntington's disease (HD) patients, we find increased transcriptional heterogeneity in disease-state neurons. We hypothesize that transcriptional heterogeneity precedes neurodegenerative disease pathologies. To test this idea experimentally, we use juvenile forms (72Q; 180Q) of HD iPSCs, differentiate them into committed neuronal progenitors, and obtain single-cell expression profiles. We show a global increase in gene expression variability in HD. Autophagy genes become more stable, while energy and actin-related genes become more variable in the mutant cells. Knocking down several differentially variable genes results in increased aggregate formation, a pathology associated with HD. We further validate the increased transcriptional heterogeneity in CHD8+/- cells, a model for autism spectrum disorder., Conclusions: Overall, our results suggest that although neurodegenerative diseases develop over time, transcriptional regulation imbalance is present already at very early developmental stages. Therefore, an intervention aimed at this early phenotype may be of high diagnostic value.

Nucleosomes form heterogeneous groups in vivo, named clutches. Clutches are smaller and less dense in mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) compared to neural progenitor cells (NPCs). Using coarse-grained modeling of the pluripotency Pou5f1 gene, we show that the genome-wide clutch differences between ESCs and NPCs can be reproduced at a single gene locus. Larger clutch formation in NPCs is associated with changes in the compaction and internucleosome contact probability of the Pou5f1 fiber. Using single-molecule tracking (SMT), we further show that the core histone protein H2B is dynamic, and its local mobility relates to the structural features of the chromatin fiber. H2B is less stable and explores larger areas in ESCs compared to NPCs. The amount of linker histone H1 critically affects local H2B dynamics. Our results have important implications for how nucleosome organization and H2B dynamics contribute to regulate gene activity and cell identity., Competing Interests: Declaration of Interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The modification of proteins by ubiquitin-fold modifier 1 (UFM1) is implicated in many human diseases. Prior to conjugation, UFM1 undergoes activation by its cognate activating enzyme, UBA5. UBA5 is a non-canonical E1 activating enzyme that possesses an adenylation domain but lacks a distinct cysteine domain. Binding of UBA5 to UFM1 is mediated via an amino acid sequence, known as the UFM1-interacting sequence (UIS), located outside the adenylation domain that is required for UFM1 activation. However, the precise boundaries of the UIS are yet not clear and are still under debate. Here we revisit the interaction of UFM1 with UBA5 by determining the crystal structure of UFM1 fused to 13 amino acids of human UBA5. Using binding and activity assays, we found that His 336 of UBA5, previously not reported to be part of the UIS, occupies a negatively charged pocket on UFM1's surface. This His is involved in UFM1 binding and if mutated perturbs activation of UFM1. Surprisingly, we also found that the interaction between two UFM1 molecules mimics how the UIS binds UFM1. Specifically, UFM1 His 70 resembles UBA5 His336 and enters a negatively charged pocked on the other UFM1 molecule. Our results refine our understanding of UFM1-UBA5 binding.

Modification of proteins by ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like proteins (UBLs) is a critical cellular process implicated in a variety of cellular states and outcomes. A prerequisite for target protein modification by a UBL is the activation of the latter by activating enzymes (E1s). Here, we present the crystal structure of the non-canonical homodimeric E1, UBA5, in complex with its cognate UBL, UFM1, and supporting biochemical experiments. We find that UBA5 binds to UFM1 via a trans-binding mechanism in which UFM1 interacts with distinct sites in both subunits of the UBA5 dimer. This binding mechanism requires a region C-terminal to the adenylation domain that brings UFM1 to the active site of the adjacent UBA5 subunit. We also find that transfer of UFM1 from UBA5 to the E2, UFC1, occurs via a trans mechanism, thereby requiring a homodimer of UBA5. These findings explicitly elucidate the role of UBA5 dimerization in UFM1 activation., (Copyright © 2016 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)