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Reservoir Computing with Cellular Automata (ReCA) is a relatively novel and promising approach. It consists of 3 steps: an encoding scheme to inject the problem into the CA, the CA iterations step itself and a simple classifying step, typically a linear classifier. This paper demonstrates that the ReCA concept is effective even in arguably the simplest implementation of a ReCA system. However, we also report a failed attempt on the UCR Time Series Classification Archive where ReCA seems to work, but only because of the encoding scheme itself, not in any part due to the CA. This highlights the need for ablation testing, i.e., comparing internally with sub-parts of one model, but also raises an open question on what kind of tasks ReCA is best suited for.

This is Part II of the two-part comprehensive survey devoted to a computing framework most commonly known under the names Hyperdimensional Computing and Vector Symbolic Architectures (HDC/VSA). Both names refer to a family of computational models that use high-dimensional distributed representations and rely on the algebraic properties of their key operations to incorporate the advantages of structured symbolic representations and vector distributed representations. Holographic Reduced Representations is an influential HDC/VSA model that is well-known in the machine learning domain and often used to refer to the whole family. However, for the sake of consistency, we use HDC/VSA to refer to the field. Part I of this survey covered foundational aspects of the field, such as the historical context leading to the development of HDC/VSA, key elements of any HDC/VSA model, known HDC/VSA models, and the transformation of input data of various types into high-dimensional vectors suitable for HDC/VSA. This second part surveys existing applications, the role of HDC/VSA in cognitive computing and architectures, as well as directions for future work. Most of the applications lie within the Machine Learning/Artificial Intelligence domain, however, we also cover other applications to provide a complete picture. The survey is written to be useful for both newcomers and practitioners., Comment: 37 pages

This two-part comprehensive survey is devoted to a computing framework most commonly known under the names Hyperdimensional Computing and Vector Symbolic Architectures (HDC/VSA). Both names refer to a family of computational models that use high-dimensional distributed representations and rely on the algebraic properties of their key operations to incorporate the advantages of structured symbolic representations and vector distributed representations. Notable models in the HDC/VSA family are Tensor Product Representations, Holographic Reduced Representations, Multiply-Add-Permute, Binary Spatter Codes, and Sparse Binary Distributed Representations but there are other models too. HDC/VSA is a highly interdisciplinary field with connections to computer science, electrical engineering, artificial intelligence, mathematics, and cognitive science. This fact makes it challenging to create a thorough overview of the field. However, due to a surge of new researchers joining the field in recent years, the necessity for a comprehensive survey of the field has become extremely important. Therefore, amongst other aspects of the field, this Part I surveys important aspects such as: known computational models of HDC/VSA and transformations of various input data types to high-dimensional distributed representations. Part II of this survey is devoted to applications, cognitive computing and architectures, as well as directions for future work. The survey is written to be useful for both newcomers and practitioners., Comment: 31 pages

Motivated by recent innovations in biologically-inspired neuromorphic hardware, this article presents a novel unsupervised machine learning algorithm named Hyperseed that draws on the principles of Vector Symbolic Architectures (VSA) for fast learning of a topology preserving feature map of unlabelled data. It relies on two major operations of VSA, binding and bundling. The algorithmic part of Hyperseed is expressed within Fourier Holographic Reduced Representations model, which is specifically suited for implementation on spiking neuromorphic hardware. The two primary contributions of the Hyperseed algorithm are, few-shot learning and a learning rule based on single vector operation. These properties are empirically evaluated on synthetic datasets as well as on illustrative benchmark use-cases, IRIS classification, and a language identification task using n-gram statistics. The results of these experiments confirm the capabilities of Hyperseed and its applications in neuromorphic hardware.

A change of the prevalent supervised learning techniques is foreseeable in the near future: from the complex, computational expensive algorithms to more flexible and elementary training ones. The strong revitalization of randomized algorithms can be framed in this prospect steering. We recently proposed a model for distributed classification based on randomized neural networks and hyperdimensional computing, which takes into account cost of information exchange between agents using compression. The use of compression is important as it addresses the issues related to the communication bottleneck, however, the original approach is rigid in the way the compression is used. Therefore, in this work, we propose a more flexible approach to compression and compare it to conventional compression algorithms, dimensionality reduction, and quantization techniques., Comment: 12 pages, 3 figures

This article reviews recent progress in the development of the computing framework vector symbolic architectures (VSA) (also known as hyperdimensional computing). This framework is well suited for implementation in stochastic, emerging hardware, and it naturally expresses the types of cognitive operations required for artificial intelligence (AI). We demonstrate in this article that the field-like algebraic structure of VSA offers simple but powerful operations on high-dimensional vectors that can support all data structures and manipulations relevant to modern computing. In addition, we illustrate the distinguishing feature of VSA, "computing in superposition," which sets it apart from conventional computing. It also opens the door to efficient solutions to the difficult combinatorial search problems inherent in AI applications. We sketch ways of demonstrating that VSA are computationally universal. We see them acting as a framework for computing with distributed representations that can play a role of an abstraction layer for emerging computing hardware. This article serves as a reference for computer architects by illustrating the philosophy behind VSA, techniques of distributed computing with them, and their relevance to emerging computing hardware, such as neuromorphic computing., Comment: 31 pages, 15 figures, 4 Tables

This correspondence comments on the findings reported in a recent Science Robotics article by Mitrokhin et al. [1]. The main goal of this commentary is to expand on some of the issues touched on in that article. Our experience is that hyperdimensional computing is very different from other approaches to computation and that it can take considerable exposure to its concepts before attaining practically useful understanding. Therefore, in order to provide an overview of the area to the first time reader of [1], the commentary includes a brief historic overview as well as connects the findings of the article to a larger body of literature existing in the area., Comment: 10 pages, 2 figures

Recent advances in Deep Learning have led to a significant performance increase on several NLP tasks, however, the models become more and more computationally demanding. Therefore, this paper tackles the domain of computationally efficient algorithms for NLP tasks. In particular, it investigates distributed representations of n-gram statistics of texts. The representations are formed using hyperdimensional computing enabled embedding. These representations then serve as features, which are used as input to standard classifiers. We investigate the applicability of the embedding on one large and three small standard datasets for classification tasks using nine classifiers. The embedding achieved on par F1 scores while decreasing the time and memory requirements by several times compared to the conventional n-gram statistics, e.g., for one of the classifiers on a small dataset, the memory reduction was 6.18 times; while train and test speed-ups were 4.62 and 3.84 times, respectively. For many classifiers on the large dataset, memory reduction was ca. 100 times and train and test speed-ups were over 100 times. Importantly, the usage of distributed representations formed via hyperdimensional computing allows dissecting strict dependency between the dimensionality of the representation and n-gram size, thus, opening a room for tradeoffs., Comment: 9 pages, 1 figure, 6 tables

The deployment of machine learning algorithms on resource-constrained edge devices is an important challenge from both theoretical and applied points of view. In this article, we focus on resource-efficient randomly connected neural networks known as Random Vector Functional Link (RVFL) networks since their simple design and extremely fast training time make them very attractive for solving many applied classification tasks. We propose to represent input features via the density-based encoding known in the area of stochastic computing and use the operations of binding and bundling from the area of hyperdimensional computing for obtaining the activations of the hidden neurons. Using a collection of 121 real-world datasets from the UCI Machine Learning Repository, we empirically show that the proposed approach demonstrates higher average accuracy than the conventional RVFL. We also demonstrate that it is possible to represent the readout matrix using only integers in a limited range with minimal loss in the accuracy. In this case, the proposed approach operates only on small n-bits integers, which results in a computationally efficient architecture. Finally, through hardware Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) implementations, we show that such an approach consumes approximately eleven times less energy than that of the conventional RVFL., Comment: 7 pages, 7 figures

We propose an approximation of Echo State Networks (ESN) that can be efficiently implemented on digital hardware based on the mathematics of hyperdimensional computing. The reservoir of the proposed integer Echo State Network (intESN) is a vector containing only n-bits integers (where n<8 is normally sufficient for a satisfactory performance). The recurrent matrix multiplication is replaced with an efficient cyclic shift operation. The proposed intESN approach is verified with typical tasks in reservoir computing: memorizing of a sequence of inputs; classifying time-series; learning dynamic processes. Such architecture results in dramatic improvements in memory footprint and computational efficiency, with minimal performance loss. The experiments on a field-programmable gate array confirm that the proposed intESN approach is much more energy efficient than the conventional ESN., Comment: 13 pages, 11 figures, 5 tables

A Bloom filter is a simple data structure supporting membership queries on a set. The standard Bloom filter does not support the delete operation, therefore, many applications use a counting Bloom filter to enable deletion. This paper proposes a generalization of the counting Bloom filter approach, called "autoscaling Bloom filters", which allows adjustment of its capacity with probabilistic bounds on false positives and true positives. In essence, the autoscaling Bloom filter is a binarized counting Bloom filter with an adjustable binarization threshold. We present the mathematical analysis of the performance as well as give a procedure for minimization of the false positive rate., Comment: 13 pages, 3 figures

The performance of convolutional codes decoding by the Viterbi algorithm should not depend on the particular distribution of zeros and ones in the input messages, as they are linear. However, it was identified that specific implementations of Add-Compare-Select unit for the Viterbi Algorithm demonstrate the decoding performance that depends on proportion of elements in the input message. It is conjectured that the modern commercial hard- and software defined communication equipment may also feature similar implementation and as such their decoding performance could also vary., Comment: 4 pages, 7 figures

This article proposes the use of Vector Symbolic Architectures for implementing Hierarchical Graph Neuron, an architecture for memorizing patterns of generic sensor stimuli. The adoption of a Vector Symbolic representation ensures a one-layered design for the approach, while maintaining the previously reported properties and performance characteristics of Hierarchical Graph Neuron, and also improving the noise resistance of the architecture. The proposed architecture enables a linear (with respect to the number of stored entries) time search for an arbitrary sub-pattern., Comment: 9 pages, 13 figures

This paper proposes a real-time self-adaptive approach for accurate path loss estimation in underground mines or tunnels based on signal strength measurements from heterogeneous radio communication technologies. The proposed model features simplicity of implementation. The methodology was validated in simulations as well as was verified by measurements taken in real environments. The proposed method leverages accuracy of positioning matching to the existing approaches while requiring smaller engineering efforts., Comment: 9 pages, 9 figures