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Adipokines related to gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are an emerging area of interest. The aim of this study was to evaluate the associations between GDM and adipokine levels in human milk. This was an observational cohort study targeting mothers with gestational diabetes, which evaluated the association of maternal hyperglycemia severity, classified as GDM-G1 (diet treatment) and GDM-G2 (insulin treatment), with colostral adipokines involved in pro- and anti-inflammatory processes. Colostrum was collected from hyperglycemic (N = 34) and normoglycemic (N = 26) mothers, and adipokine levels were determined by immunoenzymatic assay. Among anti-inflammatory adipokines, only for irisin and vaspin, but not for obestatin and adropin, were significantly different levels noted between the GDM-G1, GDM-G2 and non-GDM cohorts. Colostrum of the GDM-G2 subgroup contained more vaspin (4.77 ng/mL) than that of normoglycemic mothers (3.12 ng/mL) and more irisin (26.95 μg/mL) than in the GDM-G1 subgroup (17.59 μg/mL). The levels of pro-inflammatory adipokines, namely, dermcidin, chemerin and visfatin, were at similar levels irrespective of maternal glycemia. Moreover, irisin showed a negative correlation with dermcidin in GDM-G2 and non-GDM cohorts. Associations were observed between colostral irisin and maternal preconception BMI, dermcidin and gestational age, and vaspin and maternal age. This study provides evidence that the way of restoring glucose homeostasis in pregnant women has an impact on the anti-inflammatory adipokines irisin and vaspin, but not on obestatin and adropin. GDM, regardless of severity, did not influence the colostral pro-inflammatory adipokines visfatin, chemerin and dermcidin.

Breastfeeding is globally recognized as the optimal method of infant nutrition, offering health benefits for both the child and the mother, making it a public health priority. However, the potential advantages of breastfeeding extend well beyond initial months. Breast milk adapts to the evolving needs of the growing infant, and its immunological, microbiological, and biochemical properties have been associated with enhanced protection against infections and chronic diseases, improved growth and development, and lower rates of hospitalization and mortality. This review explores the evidence supporting the continuation of breastfeeding beyond six months. More meticulous studies employing consistent methodologies and addressing confounders are essential. This will enable a more accurate determination of the extent and mechanisms of the positive impact of prolonged breastfeeding and allow for the implementation of effective public health strategies.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a complex metabolic disorder that has short- and long-term effects on maternal and offspring health. This study aimed to assess the impact of maternal hyperglycemia severity, classified as GDM-G1 (diet treatment) and GDM-G2 (insulin treatment) on colostral appetite-regulating molecules. Colostrum samples were collected from hyperglycemic (N = 30) and normoglycemic (N = 21) mothers, and the concentrations of milk hormones were determined by immunoenzymatic assay. A difference was found for milk ghrelin, but not for molecules such as adiponectin, leptin, resistin, or IGF-I levels, in relation to maternal hyperglycemia. The colostral ghrelin in the GDM-G1 cohort (0.21 ng/mL) was significantly lower than for GDM-G2 (0.38 ng/mL) and non-GDM groups (0.36 ng/mL). However, colostral resistin was higher, but not significantly, for GDM-G1 (13.33 ng/mL) and GDM-G2 (12.81 ng/mL) cohorts than for normoglycemic mothers (7.89 ng/mL). The lack of difference in relation to hyperglycemia for milk leptin, adiponectin, leptin-adiponectin ratio, resistin, and IGF-I levels might be the outcome of effective treatment of GDM during pregnancy. The shift between ghrelin and other appetite-regulating hormones might translate into altered ability to regulate energy balance, affecting offspring's metabolic homeostasis.

The aim of this study was to investigate factors affecting total, true protein and lactoferrin (Lf) concentrations in human milk (HM) and to evaluate the changes in protein concentrations over the course of lactation (first to sixth month postpartum). HM samples were collected from exclusively breastfeeding mothers during six time periods (1-6 months postpartum); 198 breast milk samples were collected in total. The concentrations of total and true protein in HM were determined using the MIRIS human milk analyzer (HMA). The assessment of HM protein content was also performed in skim HM samples and quantified by bicinchoninic methods with the Bicinchoninic Acid Protein Assay Kit. In turn, Lf content in skim HM samples was determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in accordance with a slightly modified procedure. In the first month of lactation total protein concentration was negatively correlated with maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (r = - 0.397; p = 0.022), whereas in the third month postpartum, positive correlation with maternal age was found (r = 0.399; p = 0.021). Considering Lf concentration, in the first month of lactation, it was positively correlated with baby's birth weight (r = 0.514; p = 0.002). In the next months (from second to sixth) no relationships between Lf concentration and maternal and infants' factors were observed. The concentration of protein and Lf in HM changes dynamically throughout lactation. Maternal and infant characteristics may impact the HM protein and Lf content, especially in the first month postpartum., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Maternal obesity, affecting many pregnant women globally, not only poses immediate health risks but also modulates breast milk composition. Obesity is linked to inflammation and oxidative stress, impacting breast milk's immune properties. This paper explores the intricate relationship between maternal metabolic disorders, such as obesity, and breast milk's immunological components. We conducted a thorough search for original and review articles published until 17 October 2023 in the PUBMED/Scopus database. This search included several terms related to human breast milk, immunological properties, and obesity. Articles were selected with the consensus of all authors. Maternal metabolic disorders have discernible effects on the composition of immune-related components in breast milk, such as immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, leptin, ghrelin, adiponectin, C-reactive protein, growth factors, extracellular vesicles, and lymphocytes. These changes in breast milk composition can significantly impact the newborn's immune system, with potential long-term health implications beyond the immediate postnatal period. Maternal metabolic health is a critical factor in shaping the health trajectory of the neonate through breastfeeding, although the full advantages of breastfeeding for children of mothers with obesity remain uncertain. Ongoing research aims to understand and unravel these links.

An important role in the network of interconnections between the mother and child is played by adipokines, which are adipose tissue hormones engaged in the regulation of metabolism. Alternations of maternal adipokines translate to the worsening of maternal insulin resistance as well as metabolic stress, altered placenta functions, and fetal development, which finally contribute to long-term metabolic unfavorable conditions. This paper is the first to summarize the current state of knowledge concerning the concentrations of individual adipokines in different biological fluids of maternal and cord plasma, newborn/infant plasma, milk, and the placenta, where it highlights the impact of adverse perinatal risk factors, including gestational diabetes mellitus, preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, preterm delivery, and maternal obesity on the adipokine patterns in maternal-infant dyads. The importance of adipokine measurement and relationships in biological fluids during pregnancy and lactation is crucial for public health in the area of prevention of most diet-related metabolic diseases. The review highlights the huge knowledge gap in the field of hormones participating in the energy homeostasis and metabolic pathways during perinatal and postnatal periods in the mother-child dyad. An in-depth characterization is needed to confirm if the adverse outcomes of early developmental programming might be modulated via maternal lifestyle intervention.

COVID-19 vaccination, apart from the sanitary regime, is the most efficient strategy to limit the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and significantly reduce the severity of the disease following infection. A cross-sectional survey was conducted during the fourth wave of the COVID-19 pandemic among pregnant Polish women and women who have already given birth to evaluate the level and attitude to vaccination. Briefly, 1196 women (256 pregnant and 940 mothers) participated in the study; 68.0% of pregnant women and 66.2% of mothers declared that they had received COVID-19 vaccination. The most frequently stated reasons not to get vaccinated were possible adverse effects on the mother, fetus or breastfed child, post-vaccination complications and limited scientific evidence on the safety of the COVID-19 vaccine. The identified predictors of avoiding COVID-19 vaccination are young age, residing in small cities or rural areas, cohabitation, low anxiety level regarding SARS-CoV-2 infection, and little knowledge concerning maternal vaccine-induced immune protection delivered to offspring. Despite the unlimited access to COVID-19 vaccination, the declared level of vaccination is worryingly low. The knowledge concerning the benefits of vaccination to mothers and their offspring is not satisfactory and requires urgent educational action, particularly among young women living outside big cities and single motherhood.

The objective of this scoping review is to determine to what extent the recommendations on perinatal care protect breastfeeding during the COVID-19 pandemic. The review follows the PRISMA ScR Extension guidelines. The research was conducted in Scopus, Medline via Pubmed, and Web of Science databases from 1 March 2020 to 31 May 2021, using 392 combinations of keywords. We searched for reviews and original papers published in English providing recommendations on delivery mode, companion during labor, the possibility of skin-to-skin contact (SSC), breastfeeding, and visitors policy. After screening, 86 out of 8416 publications qualified for data extraction. The majority of them indicated that COVID-19 infection is not a sufficient reason for a cesarean section; however, on a national level, cesarean births in severely ill patients were overrepresented. A significant number of recommendations deprived mothers of the necessary support during their labor and stay in the maternity ward. A shared decision-making model was hardly visible. Only the earliest COVID-19 recommendations suspended direct breastfeeding; in later publications, decisions were related to the mother's health, but other options of natural feeding were rarely discussed.

The diagnosis of endometriosis and fertility disorders is difficult; therefore, it is necessary to look for reliable biomarkers. Analysis of the molecular status of fibronectin as a key player in repair and wound healing processes, as well as in coagulation and fibrinolysis pathways, is justified. ELISA and SDS-agarose immunoblotting were applied to determine the fibronectin concentration and presence and occurrence of soluble FN-fibrin complexes in the blood plasma of women with endometriosis (n = 38), fertility disorders (n = 28) and the healthy group (n = 25). The concentration of fibronectin in the blood plasma of women with endometriosis (292.61 ± 96.17 mg/L) and fertility disorders (287.53 ± 122.68 mg/L) was significantly higher than in the normal group (226.55 ± 91.98 mg/L). The presence of FN-fibrin complexes of 750, 1000, 1300, 1600 and 1900 kDa in the plasma of women with endometriosis and fertility disorders was shown. The presence of FN-fibrin complexes with a molecular mass of more than 1300 kDa in women with endometriosis and infertility and the complete absence of these complexes in healthy women may indicate an increased and chronic activation of coagulation mechanisms in these patients. The presence of complexes of high molecular mass may be one of the biomarkers of fertility disorders in women.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a multifaceted disease and is associated with complications for newborns and mothers. The aim of the study was to assess Polish women's knowledge concerning GDM and their attitude to breastfeeding. As a research tool, an anonymous online survey that included 33 questions, grouped into three main sections-sociodemographic and obstetric variables, risk factors for GDM and neonatal adverse outcomes, and knowledge about breastfeeding-was used and administered online. A total of 410 women aged from 18 to 45 participated in this study. Based on the survey, it was demonstrated that the women had moderate knowledge concerning the maternal risk factors and adverse neonatal outcomes associated with GDM and, additionally, the short- and long-term effects of breastfeeding. Significantly deeper knowledge about GDM, including breastfeeding by GDM mothers, was observed among hyperglycemic mothers in comparison to normoglycemic mothers. However, knowledge concerning the health benefits of breastfeeding was not related to the mothers' glycemic status. In conclusion, educational programs must include pre-pregnancy education of women and place emphasis on explaining the mechanism of development of GDM and the transformation of GDM to type 2 diabetes. This is crucial for changing the public's perception of GDM as a temporary, reversible clinical entity.

Possible alterations of maternal immune function due to psychological stress may reflect immunoactive factor levels in breast milk. This study aimed to assess the association between maternal distress and breast milk levels of secretory IgA (SIgA), IgM, IgG, and lactoferrin (LF). We hypothesized that this association is moderated by maternal social support achieved from others during lactation. The study group included 103 lactating mothers and their healthy five-month-old infants. Maternal distress was determined based on the State Anxiety Inventory and the level of salivary cortisol. Social support was assessed using the Berlin Social Support Scales. Breast milk samples were collected to test for SIgA, IgM, IgG, and LF using the ELISA method. Milk immunoactive factors were regressed against maternal anxiety, social support, salivary cortisol, and infant gestational age using the general regression model. Maternal anxiety was negatively associated with milk levels of LF (β = -0.23, p = 0.028) and SIgA (β = -0.30, p = 0.004), while social support was positively associated with milk IgG (β = 0.25, p = 0.017). Neither anxiety nor social support were related to milk IgM. No association was found between the level of maternal salivary cortisol and immunoactive factors in milk. Our results suggest that maternal psychological wellbeing and social support may affect milk immune properties.

The regulation of infection and inflammation by a variety of host peptides may represent an evolutionary failsafe in terms of functional degeneracy and it emphasizes the significance of host defense in survival. Neuropeptides have been demonstrated to have similar antimicrobial activities to conventional antimicrobial peptides with broad-spectrum action against a variety of microorganisms. Neuropeptides display indirect anti-infective capacity via enhancement of the host's innate and adaptive immune defense mechanisms. However, more recently concerns have been raised that some neuropeptides may have the potential to augment microbial virulence. In this review we discuss the dual role of neuropeptides, perceived as a double-edged sword, with antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and protozoa but also capable of enhancing virulence and pathogenicity. We review the different ways by which neuropeptides modulate crucial stages of microbial pathogenesis such as adhesion, biofilm formation, invasion, intracellular lifestyle, dissemination, etc., including their anti-infective properties but also detrimental effects. Finally, we provide an overview of the efficacy and therapeutic potential of neuropeptides in murine models of infectious diseases and outline the intrinsic host factors as well as factors related to pathogen adaptation that may influence efficacy.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with an increased risk of having a high-care newborn and has an impact on maternal wellbeing. This study aimed to assess the effect of GDM on the lactoferrin (LF), secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), immunoglobulin G (IgG), and immunoglobulin M (IgM) concentrations in early colostrum, colostrum, and transitional milk samples of hyperglycemic ( n = 53) and normoglycemic ( n = 49) mothers using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The concentrations of milk lactoferrin and SIgA, but not IgG and IgM, from hyperglycemic and normoglycemic mothers, showed a similar negative correlation with lactation from the first to the fifteenth day. Apart from early colostral IgG, there were no differences in concentrations of LF and immunoglobulins in milk from hyperglycemic and normoglycemic mothers. For hyperglycemia compensated by diet (GDM G1) or insulin treatment (GDM G2), slight differences were seen for LF and IgG, but not for SIgA and IgM, during an early stage of lactation only. Early colostral IgG and colostral LF of insulin-treated mothers were higher (10.01 ± 4.48 mg/L and 11.50 ± 0.58 g/L, respectively) than for diet-control diabetic mothers (7.65 ± 5.67 mg/L and 8.05 ± 1.38 g/L, respectively). GDM of mothers does not have a significant impact on immunological quality of early milk.

Mother's milk immunoglobulins (Igs) delivered to infants during breastfeeding are crucial in shaping and modulating immature infants' immune system and provide efficient protection against pathogens. The aim of the study was to evaluate the immunoglobulin concentrations in milk of 116 lactating mothers over prolonged lactation from the 1st to the 48th month using the ELISA method. The concentration of proteins, SIgA and IgG, but not IgM, showed a positive correlation ( r = 0.69, p < 0.005; r = 0.54, p < 0.05; and r = 0.27, p < 0.05, respectively) with lactation from the 1st to the 48th month. The lowest concentrations of SIgA and IgG were observed for the first year (2.12 ± 0.62 g/L and 14.71 ± 6.18 mg/L, respectively) and the highest after the 2nd year of lactation (7.55 ± 7.16 g/L and 18.95 ± 6.76 mg/L, respectively). The IgM concentration remained stable during 2 years (2.81 ± 2.74 mg/L), but after 24 months it was higher (3.82 ± 3.05 mg/L), although not significantly. Moreover, negative correlations of protein ( r = -0.24, p < 0.05) and SIgA ( r = -0.47, p < 0.05) concentrations with the number of feedings were found. Human milk after the 2nd year of lactation contains significantly higher concentrations of protein, SIgA, and IgG. High concentration of immunoglobulins and protein during prolonged lactation is an additional argument to support breastfeeding even after introducing solid foods and should be one of the overarching goals in the protection of children's health., (Copyright © 2020 Czosnykowska-Łukacka, Lis-Kuberka, Królak-Olejnik and Orczyk-Pawiłowicz.)

Apart from optimal nutritional value, human milk is the feeding strategy to support the immature immunological system of developing newborns and infants. The most beneficial dietary carbohydrate components of breast milk are human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and glycoproteins (HMGs), involved in both specific and nonspecific immunity. Fucosylated oligosaccharides represent the largest fraction of human milk oligosaccharides, with the simplest and the most abundant being 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL). Fucosylated oligosaccharides, as well as glycans of glycoproteins, as beneficial dietary sugars, elicit anti-adhesive properties against fucose-dependent pathogens, and on the other hand are crucial for growth and metabolism of beneficial bacteria, and in this aspect participate in shaping a healthy microbiome. Well-documented secretor status related differences in the fucosylation profile of HMOs and HMGs may play a key but underestimated role in assessment of susceptibility to fucose-dependent pathogen infections, with a potential impact on applied clinical procedures. Nevertheless, due to genetic factors, about 20% of mothers do not provide their infants with beneficial dietary carbohydrates such as 2'-FL and other α1,2-fucosylated oligosaccharides and glycans of glycoproteins, despite breastfeeding them. The lack of such structures may have important implications for a wide range of aspects of infant well-being and healthcare. In light of the above, some artificial mixtures used in infant nutrition are supplemented with 2'-FL to more closely approximate the unique composition of maternal milk, including dietary-derived fucosylated oligosaccharides and glycoproteins., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest

Objective: The variable fibronectin (FN) molecular forms are known to be engaged in coagulation and fibrinolysis pathways as well as tissue remodeling and repair processes. Some of them seem to be indispensable molecules within intensive biological processes associated with delivery. The aim of the study was to evaluate the FN molecular status in maternal and cord plasma after vaginal birth and cesarean section (C-section). Materials and methods: The study included nonpregnant women's plasma samples ( n  = 31) and puerperal and cord plasma samples collected from 49 mothers who delivered healthy newborns at term by vaginal birth ( n  = 25) and C-section ( n  = 24). The maternal and cord plasma FN concentrations and presence and relative ratios of different FN-fibrin complexes were determined by ELISA and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) -agarose immunoblotting, respectively. Results: FN concentration in puerperal plasma after vaginal birth (232.08 ± 71.8 mg/L) and C-section (228.17 ± 71.2 mg/L) was significantly higher than in the plasma of nonpregnant women (190.00 ± 48.75 mg/L). In contrast, FN concentration in cord plasma of the C-section group (101.95 ± 30.3 mg/L) was significantly lower than that of the vaginal birth group (121.80 ± 22.2 mg/L). Immunoblotting of puerperal and cord plasma distinguished the most abundant dimeric plasma FN form, the 220-280-kDa FN degradation products and 750-1900-kDa FN-fibrin complexes, which occurred more frequently and in higher amounts in puerperal and cord plasma groups than the nonpregnant women group, although independently of the mode of delivery. Conclusions: Occurrence and relative amount of delivery-associated FN-fibrin complexes in both puerperal and cord plasmas might be bound with the physiological adaptive mechanisms reducing the risk of hemorrhage and intensive remodeling and repair processes after delivery.

In light of the immunoprotective function of human milk and the incontestable impact of IgG glycosylation on its immune functions, characterization of the sialylation profile of human milk IgG is needed. Lectins as a molecular probe were applied in lectin-IgG-ELISA to analyze the sialylation and galactosylation pattern of skim milk IgG of mothers who delivered at term and prematurely. Well-defined biotinylated lectins were used: Maackia amurensis II (MAA II), Sambucus nigra (SNA), Ricinus communis I (RCA I), and Griffonia simplicifolia II (GSL II) specific to α2,3-Neu5Ac, α2,6-Neu5Ac, Gal(β1,4)GlcNAc, and agalactosylated glycans, respectively. The sialylation pattern of milk IgG differs qualitatively and quantitatively from maternal plasma IgG and is related to lactation stage and perinatal risk factors. Expression of MAA-, SNA-, and GSL-reactive glycotopes on term milk IgG showed a positive correlation with milk maturation from days 1 to 55. Preterm birth was associated with an increase of MAA-reactive and a decrease of RCA-reactive IgG glycotopes. Moreover, higher SNA- and GSL-reactive and lower RCA-reactive glycoform levels of milk IgG were associated with infection of lactating mothers. Application of a specific and simple method, lectin-IgG-ELISA, reveals the sialylation pattern of milk IgG over milk maturation. However, further investigations are needed in this area.

Among the immunologically important bioactive factors present in human milk, lactoferrin (Lf) has emerged as a key player with wide-ranging features that directly and indirectly protect the neonate against infection caused by a variety of pathogens. The concentration of Lf in human milk is lactation-stage related; colostrum contains more than 5 g/L, which then significantly decreases to 2-3 g/L in mature milk. The milk of mothers who are breastfeeding for more than one year is of a standard value, containing macronutrients in a composition similar to that of human milk at later stages. The aim of this study was to evaluate lactoferrin concentration in prolonged lactation from the first to the 48th month postpartum. Lactating women ( n = 120) up to 48 months postpartum were recruited to the study. The mean value of lactoferrin concentration was the lowest in the group of 1-12 months of lactation (3.39 ± 1.43 g/L), significantly increasing in the 13-18 months group (5.55 ± 4.00 g/L; p < 0.006), and remaining at a comparable level in the groups of 19-24 month and over 24 months (5.02 ± 2.97 and 4.90 ± 3.18 g/L, respectively). The concentration of lactoferrin in mother's milk also showed a positive correlation with protein concentration over lactation from the first to the 48th month ( r = 0.3374; p = 0.0002). Our results demonstrate the high immunology potential of human milk during prolonged lactation and that Lf concentration is close to the Lf concentration in colostrum. Evidence of stable or rising immunoprotein levels during prolonged lactation provides an argument for foregoing weaning; however, breastfeeding must be combined with solid foods meet the new requirements of a rapidly growing six-month or older baby., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Human milk not only has nutritional value, but also provides a wide range of biologically active molecules, which are adapted to meet the needs of newborns and infants. Mother's milk is a source of sialylated oligosaccharides and glycans that are attached to proteins and lipids, whose concentrations and composition are unique. Sialylated human milk glycoconjugates and oligosaccharides enrich the newborn immature immune system and are crucial for their proper development and well-being. Some of the milk sialylated oligosaccharide structures can locally exert biologically active effects in the newborn's and infant's gut. Sialylated molecules of human milk can be recognized and bound by sialic acid-dependent pathogens and inhibit their adhesion to the epithelial cells of newborns and infants. A small amount of intact sialylated oligosaccharides can be absorbed from the intestine and remain in the newborn's circulation in concentrations high enough to modulate the immunological system at the cellular level and facilitate proper brain development during infancy. Conclusion: The review summarizes the current state of knowledge on sialylated human milk oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates, discusses the significance of sialylated structures of human milk in newborn protection and development, and presents the advantages of human milk over infant formula., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Human milk (HM) is the first dietary exposure in infancy and the best nutritional option for growth and healthy development of the newborn and infant. The concentrations of macronutrients, namely proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, change during lactation stages. HM has been studied extensively in the first 6 months of lactation, but there are limited data regarding milk composition beyond 1 or 2 years postpartum. The aim of our study was to describe longitudinal changes in HM macronutrient concentrations during the prolonged lactation of healthy mothers from the 1st to the 48th month. For the macronutrient content of milk of mothers breastfeeding for longer than 18 months, fat and protein increased and carbohydrates decreased significantly, compared with milk expressed by women breastfeeding up to 12 months. Moreover, the concentration of fat, protein and carbohydrates in HM over 2 years of lactation from the 24th to the 48th month remained at a stable level. However, analyzed macronutrients were positively (carbohydrate, r = 0.51) or negatively (fat, r = -0.36 and protein, r = -0.58) correlated with the amount of feeding. Our results create a greater potential for understanding the nutritional contribution of HM over 2 years of lactation and showed that the source of calories in breast milk for older children is mainly fat, while carbohydrates play a greater role in infant nutrition in the early stage. The observed changes of macronutrient concentrations from the 1st to the 48th month of lactation are probably related to the adaptation of milk composition to the increased energy demand of the intensively growing child.

High-pressure processing (HPP) is a non-thermal technology that is being increasingly applied in food industries worldwide. It was proposed that this method could be used as an alternative to holder pasteurization (HoP; 62.5°C, 30 min) in milk banks but its impact on the immunologic, enzymatic and hormonal components of human milk has not yet been evaluated in detail. The aim of our study was to compare the effects of HPP in variants: (1) 600 MPa, 10 min (2) 100 MPa, 10 min, interval 10 min, 600 MPa, 10 min (3) 200 MPa, 10 min, interval 10 min, 400 MPa, 10 min (4) 200 MPa, 10 min, interval 10 min, 600 MPa, 10 min in temperature range 19-21°C and HoP on the leptin, adiponectin, insulin, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), lactoferrin and IgG contents in human milk. HoP was done at the Regional Human Milk Bank in Warsaw at the Holy Family Hospital on S90 Eco pasteurizer (Sterifeed, Medicare Colgate Ltd). Apparatus U4000/65 (Unipress Equipment, Poland) was used for pascalization. Milk samples were obtained from women during 2-6 weeks of lactation. Post-treatment culture showed no endogenous bacterial contamination in any tested option. Concentrations of selected components were determined using ELISA tests. The level of all analyzed components were significantly decreased by HoP: leptin 77.86%, adiponectin 32.79%, insulin 32.40%, HGF 88.72%, lactoferrin 60.31@.%, IgG 49.04%. All HPP variants caused an increase in leptin concentration, respectively (1) 81.79% (2) 90.01% (3) 86.12% (4) 47.96%. Retention of insulin after HPP was (1) 88.20% (2) 81.98% (3) 94.76% (4) 90.31% HGF (1) 36.15% (2) 38.81% 97.15% (3) 97.15% (4) 43.02%, lactoferrin (1) 55.78% (2) 57.63% (3) 78.77% (4) 64.75%. Moreover, HPP variant as 200 + 400 MPa preserved IgG (82.24%) better than HoP and resulted not statistically significant change of adiponectin level (38.55%) compare to raw milk. Our results showed that HPP leads to preservation of adipokines, growth factor, and lactoferrin, IgG much better or comparable with HoP.

Glycoproteins of human milk are multifunctional molecules, and their fucosylated variants are potentially active molecules in immunological events ensuring breastfed infants optimal development and protection against infection diseases. The expression of fucosylated glycotopes may correspond to milk maturation stages. The relative amounts of fucosylated glycotopes of human skim milk glycoproteins over the course of lactation from the 2(nd) day to the 47(th) day were analyzed in colostrums, transitional and mature milk samples of 43 healthy mothers by lectin-blotting using α1-2-, α1-6-, and α1-3-fucose specific biotinylated Ulex europaeus (UEA), Lens culinaris (LCA), and Lotus tetragonolobus (LTA) lectins, respectively. The reactivities of UEA and LCA with the milk glycoproteins showed the highest expression of α1-2- and α1-6-fucosylated glycotopes on colostrum glycoproteins. The level of UEA-reactive glycoproteins from the beginning of lactation to the 14(th) day was high and relatively stable in contrast to LCA-reactive glycoproteins, the level of which significantly decreased from 2-3 to 7-8 days then remained almost unchanged until the 12(th)-14(th) days. Next, during the progression of lactation the reactivities with both lectins declined significantly. Eighty percent of α1-2- and/or α1-6-fucosylated glycoproteins showed a high negative correlation with milk maturation. In contrast, most of the analyzed milk glycoproteins were not recognized or weakly recognized by LTA and remained at a low unchanged level over lactation. Only a 30-kDa milk glycoprotein was evidently LTA-reactive, showing a negative correlation with milk maturation. The gradual decline of high expression of α1-2- and α1-6-, but not α1-3-, fucoses on human milk glycoproteins of healthy mothers over lactation was associated with milk maturation.

Human milk is extremely complex secretion rich in biologically active glycoconjugates including free oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, and glycosaminoglycans. Alpha1-2-fucosylated glycoconjugates of human milk are component of the innate immune system and provide an additional defense for infants. Participation of fucosylated glycotopes in the inhibition of infections caused by some bacteria and/or viruses rely on blocking of lectin-receptors of pathogen. Free fucosylated glycoconjugates present in milk are recognized and bound by the lectin-receptors of bacteria and/or viruses, and prevent pathogens adhesion to host epithelial cells and development of infection. So far, the efficacy of fucosylated glycoconjugates of human milk in the inhibition of adhesion has been confirmed for Escherichia coli, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella enterica, Rotaviruses, HIV, and Noroviruses. In this process the secretor/nonsecretor status of mother plays an important role. This is particularly important for the women who are nonsecretors and whose milk does not contain α1-2-fucosylated glycoconjugates and has reduced anti-microbial properties. Fucosylated glycoconjugates of milk are also one of the energy sources for physiological bacterial flora (Bifidobacterium), and have a positive impact on the intestinal peristalsis, and indirectly stimulate the central nervous system of infants. Furthermore, compared to human milk, the content of fucosylated glycoconjugates of cow’s milk is very low and does not provide adequate protection. This fact is particularly important in terms of nutrition and should be taken into consideration when artificial mixtures based on cows’ milk are used. The paper presents the current state of knowledge on human milk glycoconjugates, particularly on α1-2-fucosylated free oligosaccharides and glycoproteins, and discusses the significance of fucosylated glycoconjugates of human milk in the nutrition of newborns and infants.

Background: Human milk provides a multitude of glycoproteins, including highly glycosylated α-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), which elicits anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. The milk AGP glycoforms may provide the breastfed infant with a wide range of biological benefits. Here, we analyzed the reactivity of O-linked sugar-specific lectins with human milk AGP over the process of lactation and compared the results with those of the lactating mother's plasma., Materials and Methods: Relative amounts of human skim milk AGP O-glycans were analyzed in early colostrum, colostrum, and transitional and mature milk samples of 127 healthy mothers by lectin-AGP enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using sialyl T (sialyl-α2,3/α2,6 Galβ1,3GalNAc-), asialyl T (Galβ1,3GalNAc-), and Tn (GalNAc-) antigen-specific biotinylated Artocarpus integrifolia (Jacalin), Arachis hypogaea (PNA), and Vicia villosa (VVA) lectins, respectively., Results: Milk AGP elicited high expression of Jacalin- and PNA-reactive glycotopes and low expression of VVA-reactive glycotopes, which were absent on plasma AGP of lactating mothers and healthy individuals. The expression of sialyl, asialyl T, and Tn glycotopes of human milk AGP was lactation stage related. The relative amount of Jacalin-reactive AGP glycotope was highest in the colostrum samples and then decreased starting from Day 8 of lactation. In contrast, an increase of the relative amount of PNA-reactive glycotope with milk maturation was observed. The relative amount of VVA-reactive glycotope remained almost constant over the development of lactation., Conclusions: Milk AGP differs from mother's plasma AGP by the presence of O-linked sialylated and asialylated T as well as Tn antigens. The variation of the expression of sialylated and asialylated T and Tn antigens on AGP is associated with milk maturation.

Objectives: Fibronectin (FN) is a multifunctional glycoprotein appearing in various glycovariants with potential biological activities. Using lectins we analyzed the expression of terminal glycotopes on human milk fibronectin over lactation and compared it with that of the mother's plasma., Design and Methods: FN concentration and relative amounts of its fucosylated and sialylated glycovariants as well as O-glycans were analyzed in early colostrum, colostrum, transitional and mature milk samples of 132 healthy mothers by lectin-FN-ELISA using α2,3- and α2,6-sialic acid, α1,2-, α1,3-, and α1,6-fucose, and sialyl-T, asialyl-T and Tn antigen specific biotinylated Maackia amurensis, Sambucus nigra, Ulex europaeus, Tetragonolobus purpureus, Lens culinaris, Artocarpus integrifolia, Arachis hypogaea, and Vicia villosa lectins, respectively., Results: FN concentration was almost unchanged during human milk maturation and was about 150 times lower than in plasma of lactating mothers. Milk FN elicited significantly higher expression of sialylated glycotopes including sialyl-T antigen than plasma FN, and contained fucose-linked glycans, as well as T and Tn antigens absent in plasma FN. With milk maturation the expression of α2,6-sialylated, sialyl-T, α1,6- and α1,2-fucosylated epitopes decreased in transitional milk compared with colostrum, whereas that of asialyl-T antigen increased. The expression levels of α2,3-sialyl- and α1,3-fucosyl-glycotopes and Tn antigen on FN were low and did not change over lactation., Conclusion: The expression of terminal sugars on milk FN is different from that of plasma FN of the lactating mother and is associated with milk maturation. The analysis of degree of milk sialylation and fucosylation should be considered during control of biochemical quality of milk collected in milk banks., (Copyright © 2014 The Canadian Society of Clinical Chemists. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, COPD, affects the condition of the entire human organism and causes multiple comorbidities. Pathological lung changes lead to quantitative changes in the composition of the metabolites in different body fluids. The obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, OSAS, occurs in conjunction with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in about 10-20 % of individuals who have COPD. Both conditions share the same comorbidities and this makes differentiating them difficult. The aim of this study was to investigate whether it is possible to diagnose a patient with either COPD or the OSA syndrome using a set of selected metabolites and to determine whether the metabolites that are present in one type of biofluid (serum, exhaled breath condensate or urine) or whether a combination of metabolites that are present in two biofluids or whether a set of metabolites that are present in all three biofluids are necessary to correctly diagnose a patient. A quantitative analysis of the metabolites in all three biofluid samples was performed using 1 H NMR spectroscopy. A multivariate bootstrap approach that combines partial least squares regression with the variable importance in projection score (VIP-score) and selectivity ratio (SR) was adopted in order to construct discriminant diagnostic models for the groups of individuals with COPD and OSAS. A comparison study of all of the discriminant models that were constructed and validated showed that the discriminant partial least squares model using only ten urine metabolites (selected with the SR approach) has a specificity of 100 % and a sensitivity of 86.67 %. This model (AUC test  = 0.95) presented the best prediction performance. The main conclusion of this study is that urine metabolites, among the others, present the highest probability for correctly identifying patents with COPD and the lowest probability for an incorrect identification of the OSA syndrome as developed COPD. Another important conclusion is that the changes in the metabolite levels of exhaled breath condensates do not appear to be specific enough to differentiate between patients with COPD and OSAS.

Background: Because terminal sugars of α-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) are reported to be involved in anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory processes, their expressions might have an influence on the proper function of immune system of newborns. Here, relative amounts of sialylated and fucosylated glycotopes on human milk AGP over normal lactation were investigated., Materials and Methods: AGP concentration and relative amounts of its sialylated and fucosylated glycovariants were analyzed in early colostrum, colostrum, and transitional and mature milk samples of 127 healthy mothers by lectin-AGP enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using α2,3- and α2,6-sialic acid and α1,2-, α1,3-, and α1,6-fucose specific biotinylated Maackia amurensis, Sambucus nigra, Ulex europaeus, Tetragonolobus purpureus, and Lens culinaris lectins, respectively., Results: AGP concentration in human milk was about 30 times lower than in plasma of lactating mothers and decreased gradually over lactation. Milk AGP showed significantly higher expression of sialylated and fucosylated glycotopes in comparison with those of plasma AGP. Milk AGP glycovariants containing α2,6-sialylated and α1,6- and α1,2-fucosylated glycotopes showed the highest relative amounts in early colostrums. With progression of lactation, the expressions of glycotopes α1,2-fucosylated decreased starting from Day 4 and those of α2,6-sialylated and α1,6-fucosylated from Day 8 of lactation, whereas the level of α2,3-sialyl-glycotope was almost constant over 45 days of lactation. In contrast, the expression of α1,3-linked fucose on AGP was low in colostrums and significantly higher in transitional and mature milk., Conclusions: The relative amounts of sialylated and fucosylated glycovariants of human hindmilk AGP significantly varied between Days 2 and 45 of normal lactation.

Thyroid cancer is the most common endocrine malignancy. However, more than 90% of thyroid nodules are benign. It remains unclear whether thyroid carcinoma arises from preexisting benign nodules. Metabolomics can provide valuable and comprehensive information about low molecular weight compounds present in living systems and further our understanding of the biology regulating pathological processes. Herein, we applied ¹H NMR-based metabolic profiling to identify the metabolites present in aqueous tissue extracts of healthy thyroid tissue (H), non-neoplastic nodules (NN), follicular adenomas (FA) and malignant thyroid cancer (TC) as an alternative way of investigating cancer lesions. Multivariate statistical methods provided clear discrimination not only between healthy thyroid tissue and pathological thyroid tissue but also between different types of thyroid lesions. Potential biomarkers common to all thyroid lesions were identified, namely, alanine, methionine, acetone, glutamate, glycine, lactate, tyrosine, phenylalanine and hypoxanthine. Metabolic changes in thyroid cancer were mainly related to osmotic regulators (taurine and scyllo- and myo-inositol), citrate, and amino acids supplying the TCA cycle. Thyroid follicular adenomas were found to display metabolic features of benign non-neoplastic nodules and simultaneously displayed a partial metabolic profile associated with malignancy. This finding allows the discrimination of follicular adenomas from benign non-neoplastic nodules and thyroid cancer with similar accuracy. Moreover, the presented data indicate that follicular adenoma could be an individual stage of thyroid cancer development.

The sugar moiety of IgA is known to provide a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems. Terminally located glycotopes on IgA are potential ligands engaged in the interactions which may modulate the biological activities of IgA. In the present work the expressions of Maackia amurensis (MAA), Sambucus nigra (SNA), Lens culinaris (LCA), Tetragonolobus purpureus (LTA), and Ulex europaeus (UEA) reactive glycotopes on maternal plasma and amniotic IgA were evaluated in relation to the progression of a normal human pregnancy, from the 2nd trimester, throughout the 3rd trimester, perinatal period, post-date pregnancy and delivery, by lectin-IgA-ELISA, using specific biotinylated lectins. The amniotic and maternal plasma IgA concentrations and a degree of SNA and LCA reactivity of maternal plasma IgA were almost unaltered during the normal pregnancy. The amniotic IgA from the 2nd trimester was decorated by MAA-, SNA-reactive and LCA-, LTA-, and UEA-reactive glycotopes. At the turn of the 2nd and 3rd trimesters the expression of MAA-, SNA-, LTA-, and UEA-reactive glycotopes, except for LCA-reactive, increased and remained almost at unaltered levels throughout the perinatal period and delivery. However, in the post-date pregnancy the expression of LCA-, LTA-, and UEA-reactive and SNA-reactive glycotopes were significantly higher. The unique fucosylated and sialylated glycovariants of amniotic IgA associated with the progression of the normal pregnancy may illustrate a general importance of carbohydrate-lectin receptor interactions in the control and modulation of biological events to ensuring homeostasis during pregnancy, protection and well-being of fetus.

Human milk contains a lot of components (i.e. proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, inorganic elements) which provide basic nutrients for infants during the first period of their lives. Qualitative composition of milk components of healthy mothers is similar, but their levels change during lactation stages. Colostrum is the fluid secreted during the first days postpartum by mammary epithelial cells. Colostrum is replaced by transitional milk during 5-15 days postpartum and from 15 days postpartum mature milk is produced. Human milk, apart from nutritional components, is a source of biologically active molecules, i.e. immunoglobulins, growth factors, cytokines, acute phase proteins, antiviral and antibacterial proteins. Such components of human milk are responsible for specific biological activities of human milk. This secretion plays an important role in growth and development of newborns. Bioactive molecules present in the milk support the immature immune system of the newborn and also protect against the development of infection. In this article we describe the pathways involved in the production and secretion of human milk, the state of knowledge on the proteome of human milk, and the contents of components of milk during lactation. Moreover, some growth factors and proteins involved in innate and specific immunity, intercellular communication, immunomodulation, and inflammatory processes have been characterized.

Objective: Terminal-located glycotopes on immunoglobulin G (IgG) are potential ligands engaged in the interactions that may modulate the biological activities of IgG. The expressions of sialic acid and fucose residues on amniotic IgG were evaluated here in relation to the progression of normal human pregnancy., Methods: Sialyl-glycotope and fucosyl-glycotope expressions on maternal plasma and amniotic IgG were determined by lectin-IgG-ELISA., Results: The amniotic and maternal plasma IgG concentrations and a degree of α2,6-sialylation and α1,6-fucosylation of maternal plasma IgG were almost unaltered during the normal pregnancy. The plasma IgG of pregnant and nonpregnant women did not contain α2,3-linked sialic acid and α1,3-linked and α1,2-linked fucoses. In contrast, the amniotic IgG from the second trimester was decorated by α2,3-linked sialic acids, α2,6-linked sialic acids, and α1,6-linked fucose, whereas the α1,3-linked and α1,2-linked fucoses were weakly expressed. During 35-37 weeks of gestation, all the parameters increased significantly, and they remained almost at the same levels throughout 35-42 weeks, including the delivery. However, they were significantly higher in the postdate pregnancy group., Conclusion: The degree of sialylation and fucosylation of amniotic IgG was associated with the progression of normal pregnancy., (© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

The present paper describes concisely the expression and role of α(1,2)-linked fucose on some glycoconjugates as well as the detection, distribution and potential role of that glycotope on human soluble plasma and cellular fibronectins in addition to the expression on both normal and pathological amniotic fluid and seminal plasma fibronectins. The determination of α(1,2)fucosylated glycans is considered with respect to its usefulness as a potential clinically applicable biomarker in obstetrics to monitor pregnancy and in andrology to evaluate the ejaculate of infertile men and in vitro fertilization.

Glycotypes, particularly those that terminate with sialic acid and fucose are known to play a fundamental role in human development, during implantation, growth and differentiation of fetal tissues. The present review describes changes in the exposition of terminal sialic acid and fucose isoforms in the amniotic fluid glycoconjugates, α1-acid glycoprotein and fibronectin during critical stages of pregnancy, i.e. second and third trimester, perinatal period, delivery and post-date pregnancy. The distinct amniotic glycoforms are suggested to be implicated in regulatory processes to ensure homoeostasis during pregnancy and to protect the fetus. These may have the potential of becoming additional laboratory makers in obstetrics to monitor pregnancy.

We aimed to analyze possible alternations in the sialylation and fucosylation of α(1)-acid glycoprotein (AGP) in pregnancies complicated by postmature syndrome. The relative amounts of sialyl- and fucosyl-glycotopes on AGP were analyzed in 49 plasma and 49 amniotic fluid samples from postmature and normal pregnancies with gestational ages of 41 to 42 weeks by lectin-ELISA using sialic acid- and fucose-specific biotinylated lectins. The amniotic AGP derived from pregnancies complicated by fetal postmaturity contained higher relative amounts of the exposed innermost α1,6- (p < 0.04) as well as outer α1,2-linked fucoses (p < 0.01) compared with normal pregnancies. These changes were limited to the fucosylation, not sialylation, of amniotic AGP, and did not appear in maternal plasma AGP. The over-fucosylation of amniotic AGP may be considered a biochemical marker to monitor pregnancies and predict postmature syndrome complications in newborns, especially in pregnancies ending after 41 weeks.

Objectives: To analyse modifications in AGP fucosylation in relation to different stages of human pregnancy., Design and Methods: The relative amounts of three fucosyl-glycotopes on AGP were analysed by lectin-ELISA using fucose-specific biotinylated lectins in 169 plasma and 178 amniotic fluid samples from normal pregnancies with gestational ages of 14 to 42 weeks., Results: The plasma AGPs of all the pregnant women and amniotic AGPs from the 2nd trimester lacked fucoses. In contrast, in the 3rd trimester the amniotic AGPs were highly decorated by the innermost alpha1,6-fucose as well as alpha1,2- and alpha1,3-fucoses of the outer arms, reaching the highest expression around the perinatal period. At delivery the relative amounts of the alpha1,3- and alpha1,2-AGP isoforms, but not the alpha1,6 isoform, significantly decreased., Conclusions: The highly fucosylated amniotic AGP isoforms could be implicated in regulatory processes to ensure homeostasis during pregnancy and to protect the fetus. They have the potential of becoming laboratory markers in obstetrics to monitor pregnancy.

Fucose is a deoxyhexose that is present in the L-configuration of many N- and O-linked oligosaccharide structures of membrane as well as soluble glycoproteins and glycolipids produced by mammalian cells. The fucose molecule is present in ABH blood group antigens and in some oligosaccharide structures belonging to the Lewis(x), Lewis(y), Lewis(a), and Lewis(b) antigens. Characteristic of fucose is its almost exclusive presence at a terminal position, i.e. not inserted in an oligosaccharide chain. Fucose can be alpha 1,2, alpha 1,3, alpha 1,4, and alpha 1,6 linked to the glycans of glycoconjugates. This predisposes fucose to play a crucial role in biological recognition events, such as cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. In the present review the influence of fucose on the properties and biological functions of glycoproteins is described. The state of current knowledge on the role of fucosylglycotopes, fucose-containing glycans, in many physiological processes, such as fertilization, embryogenesis, fetal development, neuron transmission, leukocytes adhesion, signal transduction, and apoptosis, as well as in diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, cystic fibrosis, peptic ulcer disease, inflammatory process, and cancer, is summarized. Finally, some examples of changes in fucose expression and its possible determination as a marker for diseases diagnosis and monitoring are shown.

Background: Alterations in the AGP glycoform pattern are not only disease related, but also can occur during physiological processes such as pregnancy. In this paper, possible changes in human amniotic fluid AGP glycan branching and in the type of sialic acid glycosidic attachment to glycans were analyzed with regard to different stages of human pregnancy., Methods: Crossed-affinity immunoelectrophoresis with concanavalin A was used to study AGP branching and lectin-ELISA with two agglutinins from Maackia amurensis and Sambucus nigra was applied to differentiate alpha2,3 and alpha2,6 type sialic acid attachments., Results: Despite almost unchanged levels of total amniotic fluid AGP during pregnancy, alterations in N-glycan branching and in the expression of sialic acid linkage on AGP were found to be associated with different stages of normal pregnancy. Amniotic fluid AGP glycans derived from third trimester compared with those from the second trimester had a higher percentage of tri- and tetra-antennary sialylated N-glycans. In the second trimester, sialic acid alpha2,6 linkage occurred twice as frequently as alpha2,3 linkage, while during the third trimester alpha2,3 linkage increased and both types of linkage appeared in equal proportion., Conclusions: Branched and alpha2,3-sialylated AGP glycoforms in amniotic fluid could contribute to natural innate fetomaternal defense.

The present knowledge concerning the glycan structures and role of glycoconjugates derived from amniotic fluid is fragmentary and mainly focuses on the individual glycoproteins. The question has arisen as whether the general glycosylation pattern of amniotic fluid glycoconjugates can change with the progression of a normal pregnancy. In the present work we have described the dynamic, quantitative alterations in relative amounts of sialic acid and fucose linked by a variety of anomeric linkages to subterminal oligosaccharide structures of amniotic fluid glycoconjugates in relation to pregnancy age. The analysis was performed in the following groups of amniotic fluids derived from normal pregnancy by lectin dotting method: "2nd trimester" (14-19 weeks), "3rd trimester" (29-37 weeks), "perinatal period" (38-40 weeks) , "delivery at term" (39-41 weeks) and "post date pregnancy" (41-43 weeks). In the "3rd trimester" the amniotic fluid glycoconjugates contained higher relative amounts of glycans terminated by alpha2-6-linked sialic acid (p < 0.00002) and by alpha1-6 innermost fucose (p < 0.000001) than those in the 2nd trimester. In contrast, they showed the lower relative amount of fucose linked alpha1-3 (p < 0.02). At the perinatal period the relative amount of alpha2-6-linked sialic acid increased (p < 0.03), and it then decreased during delivery (p < 0.02) to the level found in the "3rd trimester" group. In the post date pregnancy all parameters studied increased. The sialyl- and fucosyl-glycotopes of the amniotic fluid glycoconjugates may play an critical role in growth and tissue remodeling of the foetus, as well as may might reflect maturation of a foetus. Additionally, a determination of the glycotope expressions might be helpful in prenatal diagnosis as predictor factors for well being of mother and child.

Objectives: Sialic acid is a negatively charged monosaccharide attached to non-reducing end of N- and O-linked carbohydrate chains of glycoconjugates. The claimed biological functions of sialic acid include its participation in cell to cell recognition and interaction as well as affecting the function of receptors by providing binding sites for ligand. Increased sialic acid concentration have been observed in several diseases e.g. malignancies, diabetes, inflammatory disorders, rheumatoid arthritis and alcoholism., Design: The aim of the present work was to determine if the amount of sialic acid attached to glycoconjugates of amniotic fluid changes during pregnancy., Materials and Methods: The sialic acid content in 47 samples of amniotic fluid derived from pregnant women with gestational age between 13 and 42 was studied by sialic acid specific lectins immunosorbent assay. The patient samples were divided into seven groups., Results: Time dependent changes in the degree of sialylation of glycoconjugates in amniotic fluid during pregnancy, particularly in advanced pregnancy were observed. Moreover, the highest sialic acid content on glycoconjugates in pregnancies complicated by premature rupture of membranes and is prolonged pregnancy were also detected., Conclusions: Sialic acid content determination in amniotic fluid could be a potentially useful marker of inflammation process of amniochorion during pregnancy.