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In 2016, the University of Bergen conducted an archaeological field school at Hallingskeid in the high-mountains in Ulvik County, western Norway. One of the sites investigated was a bouldershelter with a cultural layer that showed periodical activity from the Late Mesolithic, the Neolithic, and the Bronze Age. At the time, this was the first boulder-shelter to be investigated in these mountain areas since the 1970s and provided valuable insight into the chronological depth of the activity at these permanent shelters. This raised the question whether this site was an anomaly or if these types of settlement structures were equally ‘important’ also before the transition to farming? Permanent shelters have received less focus as research subject the last 40 yerars, especially in the high mountains. A larger study of the Hardangervidda and Nordfjella mountain areas show a considerable use of these habitation structures at least from the Late Mesolithic and on. This paper aims to look at rockshelters and boulder-shelters in a longer perspective with a focus on their use before and after the Middle-Late Neolithic (MN-LN) transition to farming c. 2350 BC to discuss their importance among hunter-fisher-gatherer communities in South Norway.

Reindeer have been hunted in the mountains of South Norway since shortly after the last ice age. In that time they have served as a meeting place for groups from East and West Norway. In the Neolithic, ca. 4000–2350 BC, South Scandinavia was characterized by a multitude of large, partly contemporary, cultural networks. These networks were also present in South Norway but their influence has varied on eastern and western Norwegian groups. This includes the degree to which agriculture was implemented into existing social structures, which did not become a major economic and social factor until the end of the Late Neolithic after 2350 BC. The mountain areas of Hardangervidda and Nordfjella are centrally placed between East and West Norway and have been seasonally used for hunting and social interaction by groups from both regions. This is reflected in the variation of the archaeological material found at the many settlement sites that can be traced to different groups living at the coast and inland in both regions. The overall theme of this thesis is to explore how social traditions arise and change, and how the variation we see can be explained. Did the different social and cultural changes have any impact on the utilization of the mountain areas? Did the varying degree of social interaction and transfer of knowledge between East and West Norway influence processes of change? These questions have received little attention in the last 40 years, especially in relation to these central mountain areas in the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age. In order to discuss processes of change in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age two main themes are explored; cultural variation and the significance of mountain areas in Neolithic societies. Cultural variation is here defined as differences and variation in social and cultural structures expressed in contemporary material cultures in eastern and mid-western Norway (Hordaland County). This includes archaeological material from settlements situated at the coast, inland and mountain regions. The themes that will be explored are twofold. One theme will focus on how material culture from settlement sites and their connection to landscape can illuminate processes behind establishing social traditions in the Neolithic and how continuity and change can be explained. The mountain areas of Hardangervidda and Nordfjella provides a suitable starting point for discussions concerning interregional contact and its impact on social and cultural change. The second theme concerns if and how the economic importance of hunting and trapping might have fluctuated during the Neolithic with varying agricultural practices. Hunting for reindeer was the primary motivational cause for activity on the mountains and can be used as an indicator of what importance big game hunting played in these semi-agrarian societies. An important question is if the transition to a more farm based society in the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age might have affected the activity in alpine areas in South Norway? The basis for this study is a re-examination of previous archaeological material found on mountain settlement sites. There has been an exponential growth in source material the last 20 years from excavations along the coast and inland in both eastern and western Norway. These have vastly expanded our understanding of the Stone Age in these regions. They form a basis for new and updated chronological and typological frameworks that can be used to contextualize data from older excavations. A total of 81 sites from Hardangervidda and Nordfjella have been included in the analysis, of which 61 are excavated and 20 surveyed. The sites are a mix of multi and single phased settlements with activity dating from the Late Mesolithic and throughout the Pre Roman Iron Age. A key premise of this thesis has been the understanding of human action as fundamentally relational and socially motivated. Archaeological finds are part of a society’s material culture and their patterns can be interpreted as a reflection of social traditions. An important question is how variation in material culture can be explained, what are the factors that help shape a cultural tradition and why is there variation in South Norway between East and West? To address this I have used Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of practise to interpret the material culture in the mountains as a reflection of social groups every day practise, and how this can give us insights into stable social structures and also processes of change. Through transfer of knowledge, social structures are passed on within groups and families between generations, and this also incorporates a certain local or native aspect of social traditions. This perspective implies that knowledge, tradition and habitus are influenced by living in specific landscapes over time. Aspects such as subsistence practise, settlement patterns and identity can contribute to variations between areas such as eastern and western Norway. This would have affected reactions to internal and external cultural impulses, and understanding the basis for change is important for discussing the dynamics between cultural and environmental influences for variations in material culture. Can fluctuations in contact between eastern and western groups explain differences in the degree of integration into South Scandinavian cultural networks? How was the significance of hunting in the mountain areas impacted by different societal changes during the Neolithic? Did this lead to greater or less activity? Relational aspects within and between social groups can be used analytically to connect supraregional cultural impulses with more local social structures. Were new impulses integrated into existing structures or did they lead to societal and cultural upheaval? The results from the study show that the activity in the mountain areas did fluctuate throughout the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age and this was caused by various factors. Climate change led to lower temperatures and a lowering of the forest line in the Middle Neolithic, increasing the reindeer herds and subsequently the activity by groups from both eastern and western Norway. This also led to more contact and cultural exchange, increasingly integrating the western population into South Scandinavian networks. There is also strong indications of a decline in activity in the first part of the Late Neolithic, most likely caused by a general population decline and societal upheaval linked to the transition to farm based economy. This change in activity has not been evenly distributed across the study area. Continuity can be seen in northern parts of Hardangervidda and in Nordfjella. Other areas, such as the southern parts of Hardangervidda, shows less evidence of activity in the transition between the Middle and Late Neolithic. These variations indicate that the transition to agriculture along the coast and inland was not a homogenous one. A general understanding has been that by the start of the Late Neolithic ca. 2350 BC there was already a farm based society where agricultural practises dominated economically. Through this thesis I want to show a way to analyse cultural change and that the processes leading to an agrarian based society in South Norway can be understood in terms of the dynamics between semi-local social structures and interregional information networks. This also means that even though cultural traits spread rapidly along the coastal South-Norway around 2350 BC, the shift was not uniform or happened simultaneously in the whole of South Norway. It also implies that local landscape relations lead to variations in subsistence economy and that the society was perhaps not as homogenous as previously thought. Doktorgradsavhandling

I forbindelse med Bakke prosjekt AS oppstart av reguleringsplan for Grimsrød (3/3142), Moss kommune, gjennomførte Østfold fylkeskommune en registrering av området i 2017. I tillegg til mer nøyaktig kartfesting av tidligere kjente steinalderboplasser, ble også en ny lokalitet påvist benevnt ID 229197. Lokaliteten ble avgrenset gjennom totalt 18 prøvestikk, hvorav tre positive med til sammen fire littiske funn, med en anslått utstrekning på ca. 160 m2. Kun ID229197 var i direkte konflikt med tiltaket og i perioden 24-26/9, 1-12/10 2018 utførte Kulturhistorisk museum en arkeologisk undersøkelse av lokaliteten. Lokaliteten lå på en flate i et skogs- og utmarkslandskap og til sammen 22 m2 ble undersøkt som utgjør 13,5 % av antatt lokalitetsflate. Utgravningen frembrakte 28 littiske funn og to kokegroper og undersøkelsene viser sporadisk aktivitet på stedet ved ulike perioder. Strandlinjedatering viser at den eldste fasen har vært etter 2800 f.Kr. da lokaliteten var strandbundet. Den neste fasen omfatter majoriteten av funnmaterialet samt en kokegrop fra overgangen eldre/yngre bronsealder. Den siste bruksfasen er representert ved en kokegrop fra førromersk jernalder. Til sammen tre kullprøver er innsamlet fra to kokegroper hvorav to prøver er 14C-datert. Prosjektleder: Per Persson.

Sommeren 2012 ble 213 m2 undersøkt på Hovland 3. Det ble funnet 21 381 flintartefakter, men også gjenstander av kvartsitt, bergkrystall, bergart og sandstein. Det ble i tillegg påvist et kulturlag tolket som en hyttetuft. Kulturlaget er 14C-datert til mellommesolitikum (7676-7579 f.Kr.). I tillegg ble det undersøkt tre ildsteder og åtte groper/kokegroper hvorav seks var mesolittiske, en fra førromersk jernalder og en fra romertid. Gjenstandsmaterialet er entydig mellommesolittisk og samsvarer godt med tidligere undersøkelser i Øst-Norge. Diagnostiske trekk inkluderer hullingspisser, skjevtrekantmikrolitter og produksjon av regulære flekker og mikroflekker på koniske og ensidig koniske plattformkjerner. Redskapstyper omfatter bor, skrapere og køller hvorav en korsformet. Lokaliteten representerer trolig ett eller flere langvarige opphold. Prosjektleder: Hege Damlien/Steinar Solheim.

Ved den arkeologiske undersøkelsen sommeren 2011 ble det undersøkt et område på ca. 210 m2 og det ble gjort 50 littiske funn. Det ble undersøkt en kokegrop datert til yngre bronsealder og et udatert ildsted. Høyden over havet tyder på aktivitet i midtre del av mellommesolitikum. Nordby 1 skiller seg i stor grad fra andre samtidige lokaliteter med få funn. Lokaliteten representerer trolig ett eller flere korte opphold med liten eller ingen redskapsproduksjon. Slitesporsanalyser viser i midlertid til aktivitet i form av bearbeiding av tre og skinn samt oppskjerping/reparasjon av redskaper. Dette er en type lokalitet som sjelden blir prioritert undersøkt og Nordby 1 har således gitt ett lite, men viktig bidrag til forståelsen av bosetningsorganisering og landskapsbruk i Vestfold i mellommesolitikum. Prosjektleder: Hege Damlien/Steinar Solheim.

Ved den arkeologiske undersøkelsen sommeren og høsten 2011 ble det undersøkt et område på ca. 370 m2. Det ble gjort rundt 8600 littiske funn fordelt på tre større konsentrasjoner hvorav en er tolket som mulig rest etter boligkonstruksjon. Det ble undersøkt to kokegroper, en datert til mellommesolitikum og den andre til yngre bronsealder/førromersk jernalder, og et udatert ildsted. Høyden over havet tyder på aktivitet i midtre del av mellommesolitikum og underbygges av den daterte kokegropen. Gjenstandsmaterialet er entydig mellommesolittisk og samsvarer godt med tidligere undersøkelser i Øst-Norge. Diagnostiske trekk inkluderer skjevtrekant mikrolitt, produksjon av regulære flekker og mikroflekker på koniske og ensidig koniske plattformkjerner. Redskapstyper omfatter bor, skrapere, stikkel, kniver og to trinnøkser. Lokaliteten representerer trolig ikke langvarige opphold, men kan ha blitt besøkt flere ganger. Prosjektleder: Hege Damlien/Steinar Solheim.

I perioden 16.–27. august 2010 ble det gjennomført en arkeologisk undersøkelse på Fulu store (3/8,10), lok. 4, som var en av syv lokaliteter undersøkt i forbindelse med prosjektet Rv2 Glåmdalen. Utgravningsprosjektet ble igangsatt i forbindelse med reguleringsplan for Rv2, Slomarka-Kongsvinger. På lok. 4 ble det undersøkt omtrent 2 dekar, og påvist en urnegrav med store deler av et situlaformet kar og 57,4 g brente bein. Beinmaterialet er bestemt av Helge I. Høeg til menneskebein, og datert til førromersk jernalder (370-205 cal. BC). Urnen var satt ned i en grop som trolig har vært en eldre kokegrop. Et trekullag i forbindelse med de brente beina er også datert til førromersk jernalder (385- 210 cal. BC). Noen meter sør for graven ble det funnet en grop som inneholdt forkullet korn av bl.a. nakent bygg, emmer og spelt. Gropen er tolket som en tørkegrop for korn, og er datert til førromersk jernalder (405-375 cal. BC). Spredt rundt om på feltet lå tre kokegroper også datert til førromersk jernalder (365-195 cal. BC, 390-260 cal. BC), og groper/nedgravinger av ukjent funksjon. Det ble til sammen tatt ut 21 prøver i felt. Tre av prøvene har blitt sendt til konvensjonell vedartsbestemmelse utført av Helge I. Høeg, og tre ble sendt til detaljert vedanatomisk analyse ved Peter Mikkelsen, Moesgård Museum. To prøver av brent korn ble sendt til makrofossilanalyse foretatt av Anine Moltsen, NOK. Fem prøver for radiologiske dateringer ble oversendt Laboratoriet for radiologisk datering, NTNU. Prosjektleder; Inger Marie Berg-Hansen

I perioden 30. august–10. september 2010 ble det gjennomført en arkeologisk undersøkelse på Fulu store (3/1,9), lok. 5, som var en av syv lokaliteter undersøkt i forbindelse med prosjektet Rv2 Glåmdalen. Utgravningsprosjektet ble igangsatt i forbindelse med reguleringsplan for Rv2, Slomarka-Kongsvinger. Det ble undersøkt 1,1 dekar fordelt på tre utgravningsfelt, beliggende på begge sider av Rv2. Øst i felt 1 ble det påvist spor etter en eller flere stolpebygde konstruksjoner fra overgangen yngre bronsealder-førromersk jernalder (515-405 cal. BC, 760-420 cal. BC, 520-405 cal. BC, 375-205 cal. BC). I vestre del av det samme feltet ble det funnet fire kokegroper daterte til eldre bronsealder (1265-1135 cal. BC). Det ble også undersøkt to groper/nedgravinger og den ene ble også datert til førromersk jernalder (355-200 cal. BC). På felt 3 ble det påvist en kullgrop datert til tidlig middelalder (1020-1040 cal. AD), samt bunn/rest etter en kullmile datert til overgangen mellom senmiddelalder og tidlig etterreformatorisk tid. Det ble til sammen tatt ut 27 prøver i felt. Av dem ble 11 analysert gjennom vedartsbestemmelse utført av Helge I. Høeg, og 8 gjennom makrofossilanalyse ved Anine Moltsen, NOK. Syv kullprøver og to korn ble 14C datert ved Najonallaboratoriet for 14C-datering ved Vitenskapsmuseet, NTNU i Trondhjem. Prosjektleder: Inger Marie Berg-Hansen

Master i Arkeologi MAHF-ARK ARK350

Complex composite structural remains are rarely encountered on sites from the earlier parts of the younger Stone Age (4000–2300 BC) in southwestern Norway. This hut, an Early Neolithic structure unearthed at Tananger on the coast of southwestern Norway is presented in this article. Its architectural elements and associated lithic and macrofossil assemblages suggests that the structure is a hut functioning as a short-term living space. While there are strong indications that this activity dates to the Early Neolithic the results of carbon dating are contradicting. However, there are also problems with this interpretation. Contradicting 14C results challenge the huts age, making it crucial to analyse surrounding archaeological finds and the dwellings constructive elements to give a complete interpretation. I will highlight some of the questions this feature rises concerning function and social significance primarily within the stated period. This example will therefore highlight and expand our knowledge of Early Neolithic dwellings. Analysis of lithic artefacts and archaeobotanical material from the site provide insight into settlement patterns and the economy in this period. Sheltered from wind by turf walls dug down into the sand this structure gives the impression of representing a short-term living space used primarily for hunting and gathering activities in the Early Neolithic. The Tananger-hut has several similarities regarding shape, size and lithic assemblage with Early Neolithic structures from settlements, in southern Sweden, Denmark as well as other areas of northern Europe where agriculture was the primary means of subsistence.

This article describes an attempt at sourcing hydrothermal quartz crystals from the Early Mesolithic site Mohalsen-I by comparing four pieces of debitage with quartz crystal samples from 19 known quartz crystal occurrences in Norway. Through identifying a possible source, the hope was that we could shed light on mobility patterns and raw material procurement strategies in the research area. The samples were analysed using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and scanning electron microscopy cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL). Through analysing SEM-CL images and the chemical composition of five samples from the Berglia- Glassberget occurrence in Lierne, we found similar structural features and chemical concentrations of selected trace elements in the samples. This indicates that the method is a viable approach to sourcing hydrothermal quartz crystals from archaeological contexts. However, no clear parallel for the samples from Mohalsen-I was discovered, indicating that the source is not among the quartz crystal occurrences analysed here. The research conducted will serve as a basis for potential future investigations and as a reference for similar studies.

Prehistoric hunter-gatherer settlement sites were arenas for technological practices as the daily and physical context where technological processes took place. In this perspective, archaeological analyses of site contexts are directed towards understanding technological processes, the use of tools and where these activities were performed at the sites. Middle Neolithic sites in western Norway exhibit a varied used of raw materials for lithic tools, particularly with quartz and quartzite knapped using bipolar technique. The paper discusses a site from Øygarden, Hordaland County, western Norway, dated to the Middle Neolithic, with a use-wear analysis of the quartz assemblage as a point of departure. The focus is directed at understanding functional properties of the tool assemblage and the spatial context of technological practices reflected by the distribution of the artefact assemblage. The use-wear analysis extends the understanding of the behavioural pattern of the site where two individuals performed both similar and different work operations. Quartz tools are associated with one of the individuals. The distribution of the tools suggests several spatially segregated work operations linked in a continuous process. The study directs attention to the lack of, and potential for, functional studies on Norwegian site assemblages.

Similarities in late-glacial lithic technology (direct percussion) of western Europe and the oldest counterparts of Scandinavia appearing around 11,700 BP have sustained arguments for an early postglacial migration from northwestern Europe into Scandinavia including coastal areas of northern Norway. However, another lithic technology (pressure blade), occurring in Fennoscandia around 10,300 BP, indicates contacts with groups in the east and potentially a second and east-west migration deriving from the Russian mainland. aDNA studies of some of the oldest coastal human individuals from Europe, represented by two Norwegian skeletons (9500 BP) unveiled admixture of southern hunter gatherer (SHG) and eastern hunter gatherer (EHG), descended from isolated Glacial refugia. The Norwegian samples show dominance of EHG while contemporary samples from Gotland show a dominance of SHG ancestry. Isotopic markers of a diet consisting of more than 80% marine protein deriving from the highest level of the food chain sustain the importance and likely attraction of marine mammal resources. The biomolecular results underpin a second migration into Norway from northeast c. 10,300 BP, likely over the Cap of the North. Recent lithic studies covering larger parts of Central Scandinavia and Russia, however, provide a more fine-tuned narrative of networks and pulses of migration.

Almost for a century, the archaeological record of the coastal Stone Age housepit sites in Arctic Norway has been at the centre of attention in many archaeological studies of this region. Although housepit reuse is occasionally recognised in particular cases, the theme does not get the proper attention it deserves. Since the early 1990s, an increasing number of radiocarbon samples have been dated, and the most recent excavations provide 14C-dates from single dwelling structures in quantities not formerly seen. Frequently, the radiocarbon determinations from one housepit prove to be widely spread in time, and hint towards the possibility of reuse. Here I contribute to the subject by outlining a formal method for analysing radiocarbon dates to detect episodes of housepit reuse, and by presenting the first estimation of the magnitude of the phenomena on a larger scale. Radiocarbon dates from three large-scale excavation projects, conducted between 1991 and 2010, are modelled following the Bayesian approach, and the chronological relationship between the dates is evaluated by statistical testing. The analysis reveals that housepit reuse is far more common than hitherto acknowledged, consequently each housepit can represent multiple household generations.

This contribution investigates burial and mortuary practice in the Mesolithic period (9300–3900 BC) in what today is defined as Norway. This issue has received little attention, as poor preservation conditions for bone material in the forest zone of the North has led to a low number of finds. Recent excavations of single burials at e.g. Brunstad and Sømmevågen trigger off a reassessment of the topic. The twelve sites with human bones, which could be identified, dating to the Middle and Late Mesolithic, were studied and compared. Even though statistically not significant, they exhibit some common traits: Human remains are mainly found in the places of the living: on coastal settlement sites, including caves/rockshelters and open-air sites. This broad spectrum of sites indicates human engagement with different natural and cultural elements when dealing with the dead: hollows, water, earth and cultural debris. Both graves with apparently intact human bodies and single (loose) human bones can be identified. Together with sites found in wetlands with seemingly selected types of bones, these bear witness to a broad range of mortuary practices, including inhumation, the fragmenting of corpses and the circulation of selected bones. This is in line with practices observed in other parts of Northern Europe; a special closeness to finds from Western Sweden is observed. As in other areas it is most likely that only a small number of people were actually buried, while most of them received other treatment in death, not easily visible archaeologically. The identification of these various phenomena will hopefully make it possible to identify other find contexts in future, and will be important when discussing social and ritual aspects of Mesolithic hunter-gatherer societies, not least regarding studies on genetics and mobility.

The first large scale regional provenance analysis of greenstone and diabase adzes in western Norway was undertaken forty years ago. The study identified two social territories, which have been central in Norwegian archaeology ever since. Concerns have later been raised regarding the validity of the results due to the dominance of descriptive macroscopic methods, mostly based on visual examinations, used to identify the different rock types. To evaluate the older study, we have undertaken portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (pXRF) analyses of greenstone adzes distributed in Rogaland County, southwestern Norway. However, there are also challenges pertaining to this type of surfaceconfined analytical technique, such as effects of patination, surface depositions, surface geometry and spectral interferences. Methodological rigorousness and proper documentation are thus vital in order to produce valid data suited for inter- and intra-group comparative lithic provenance studies. Acknowledging the concerns raised, we describe our procedure, including the process of selecting suitable parameters and measures taken regarding the computation and replicability of the measurement results. Our preliminary results suggest that pXRF is indeed a capable non-destructive method for studying the provenance of greenstone adzes. It may also prompt further research into the exploitation of rock, place and identity in the Mesolithic.

A chronological outline of the Mesolithic in southeast Norway was published by Egil Mikkelsen in 1975, dividing the Mesolithic period into four succeeding phases. Since then, this chronology has remained the main framework for arranging Mesolithic settlement finds, although with slight later adjustments. However, when Mikkelsen published his study, very few settlement sites had been excavated. This has now changed, as a large number of sites have been investigated in recent years. The data from these sites have dramatically raised the potential for studies into the chronological development in the region. However, the newly unearthed assemblages are in some cases difficult to fit into the established chronology. In this paper, the empirical foundation of the established Mesolithic chronology is reassessed, and it is concluded that the chronological scheme is due for a revision. Based on a high number of recently excavated sites and associated radiocarbon dates, a revised chronology of the Mesolithic in southeast Norway is suggested. It is claimed that six Mesolithic phases can be distinguished – three main phases (Early, Middle and Late Mesolithic), with each of them, in turn, divided into two sub-phases.