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Lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs) were originally found as symbiotic signals called Nod Factors (Nod-LCOs) controlling the nodulation of legumes by rhizobia. More recently, LCOs were also found in symbiotic fungi and, more surprisingly, very widely in the kingdom Fungi, including in saprophytic and pathogenic fungi. The LCO-V(C18:1, fucosylated/methyl fucosylated), hereafter called Fung-LCOs, are the LCO structures most commonly found in fungi. This raises the question of how legume plants such as Medicago truncatula can discriminate between Nod-LCOs and Fung-LCOs. To address this question, we performed a genome-wide association study on 173 natural accessions of M. truncatula, using a root branching phenotype and a newly developed local score approach. Both Nod-LCOs and Fung-LCOs stimulated root branching in most accessions, but the root responses to these two types of LCO molecules were not correlated. In addition, the heritability of the root response was higher for Nod-LCOs than for Fung-LCOs. We identified 123 loci for Nod-LCO and 71 for Fung-LCO responses, of which only one was common. This suggests that Nod-LCOs and Fung-LCOs both control root branching but use different molecular mechanisms. The tighter genetic constraint of the root response to Fung-LCOs possibly reflects the ancestral origin of the biological activity of these molecules.

The engineering sciences, and more particularly microelectronics, are a field where the presence of women is very low, although they should logically account for half of the staff. The electronic and microelectronics sector is growing rapidly due to the development of the Internet and connected objects more generally known as the digital society. Industrialists in the field are lacking in skills and have a large number of job vacancies which are difficult to fill. These jobs cover almost all the professional facets that are entitled " Skilled manpower shortage". The arrival in this sector of a large number of female candidates could reduce this deficit and increase the sector's capacity for innovation through their difference of appreciation on many societal aspects. This paper discusses and analyses the presence of French young women in science studies from secondary school to doctorate level by linking this behavior to societal aspects. It then proposes approaches that are currently being carried out by the national academic network at the French level with the profession in the context of the implementation of an electronic sector by the government. These approaches aim to limit the loss of female candidates to other fields and to increase the attractiveness for young girls.

The use of herbicides for weed control is very common, but some of them represent a threat to human health, are environmentally detrimental, and stimulate herbicide resistance. Therefore, using microorganisms as natural herbicides appears as a promising alternative. The mycoflorae colonizing different species of symptomatic and asymptomatic weeds were compared to characterize the possible mycoherbicidal candidates associated with symptomatic weeds. A collection of 475 symptomatic and asymptomatic plants belonging to 23 weed species was established. A metabarcoding approach based on amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region combined with high-throughput amplicon sequencing revealed the diversity of fungal communities hosted by these weeds: 542 fungal genera were identified. The variability of the composition of fungal communities revealed a dispersed distribution of taxa governed neither by geographical location nor by the botanical species, suggesting a common core displaying nonspecific interactions with host plants. Beyond this core, specific taxa were more particularly associated with symptomatic plants. Some of these, such as Alternaria, Blumeria, Cercospora, Puccinia, are known pathogens, while others such as Sphaerellopsis, Vishniacozyma, and Filobasidium are not, at least on crops, and constitute new tracks to be followed in the search for mycoherbicidal candidates. IMPORTANCE This approach is original because the diversity of weed-colonizing fungi has rarely been studied before. Furthermore, targeting both the ITS1 and ITS2 regions to characterize the fungal communities (i) highlighted the complementarity of these two regions, (ii) revealed a great diversity of weed-colonizing fungi, and (iii) allowed for the identification of potential mycoherbicides, among which were unexpected genera.

Objective: The article addresses the language of subjective rights, having as reference the meaning of the word “rights” acquire when used in the sense of individual freedom. The question that we want to ask throughout the text is as follows: what are the meanings of the expression “rights” can acquire when used, linguistically, as an individual freedom both in ordinary language of common sense and in the perspective of specialists (legislators, magistrates, etc.) of a legal system?Methodology: To answer the proposed inquiry, it can be pointed out, based on the empirical analytical method, which describe the operating code of legal language, that the uses of the word “rights”, while individual freedoms, it which concern, basically, licke privileges, powers and immunities. Rights are linguistic terms that enhance the legal relationship and help human beings to be placed, from a certain context, in the position of holder and recipient of the right.Results: The article intends to highlight the molecular structure of the legal language according to which rights are intertwined in conglomerates of elementary rights estitched for by each other. They are basic rights, which, if funded, form increasingly complex rights and perform different functions between the pairs of a legal relationship, forcing them mutually.Contributions: The conclusion that intends to extract the final text is to highlight what comprises rights are, in fact, clusters of elementary rights that form a mosaic of rights - also called a cluster of rights. It is only an overlapping of these rights that brings legal permission and enables the formation of new rights. Objetivo: El artículo aborda el linguaje de los derechos subjetivos, tendiendo como referencia o significado que la palabra “derechos” Adquiere cuando se emplea en el sentido de las libertades individuales. La pregunta que se pretende abordar en la extensión del texto es la siguiente: ¿cuáles son los significados que puede adquirir la expresión “derechos” cuando se utiliza, lingüísticamente, como una libertad individual tanto en el lenguaje ordinario del sentido común como según la perspectiva de dos especialistas (legisladores, magistrados, etc.) de un sistema legal?Metodología: Para responder a la pregunta propuesta, pretendemos invocar, basado en el método empírico-analítico, que describe cómo funciona el lenguaje legal, que los usos de la palabra “derechos”, como libertades individuales, se refieren básicamente a permisos, poderes e inmunidades. Derechos son términos lingüísticos que aumentan la relación jurídica y ayudan al ser humano a posicionarse, desde un contexto determinado, en la posición de titular y receptor del derecho.Resultados: El artículo pretende destacar la estructura molecular del lenguaje jurídico al que se entrelazan las directivas en conglomerados de directivas elementales cosidas entre sí. Hay principios básicos que, a medida que se van cosiendo, se van convirtiendo en principios cada vez más complejos, que cumplen distintas funciones entre pares de una relación jurídica, vinculantes entre sí.Contribuciones: La conclusión que se pretende sacar al final del texto es resaltar que lo que entendemos como derechos son, de hecho, grupos de derechos elementales que forman un mosaico de derechos, también llamado cluster of rights. Es precisamente la superposición de estos derechos lo que dinamiza el sistema legal y permite la formación de nuevos derechos. Objetivo:O artigo aborda a linguagem dos direitos subjetivos, tendo como referência o significado que a palavra “direitos” adquire quando empregada no sentido de liberdades individuais. A pergunta que se pretende enfrentar ao longo do texto é a seguinte: quais os significados que a expressão “direitos” pode adquirir quando usada, linguisticamente, como uma liberdade individual tanto na linguagem ordinária do senso comum quanto segundo a perspectiva dos especialistas (legisladores, magistrados, etc.) de um sistema jurídico?Metodologia: Para responder à indagação proposta, pretende-se apontar, com base no método empírico-analítico, o qual descreve o funcionamento da linguagem jurídica, que os usos da palavra “direitos”, enquanto liberdades individuais, dizem respeito, basicamente, a permissões, poderes e imunidades. Direitos são termos linguísticos que incrementam a relação jurídica e auxiliam os seres humanos a se colocarem, a partir de um determinado contexto, na posição de detentor e destinatário do direito.Resultados: O artigo pretende destacar a estrutura molecular da linguagem jurídica segundo a qual os direitos se entrelaçam em conglomerados de direitos elementares costurados entre si. São direitos basilares que, ao se costurarem, formam direitos cada vez mais complexos e que desempenham funções distintas entre os pares de uma relação jurídica, obrigando-os mutuamente.Contribuições: A conclusão que se pretende extrair ao final do texto é destacar que aquilo que compreendemos como direitos são, na verdade, aglomerados de direitos elementares que formam um mosaico de direitos – também denominado cluster of rights. É justamente a sobreposição desses direitos que trazem dinâmica ao ordenamento jurídico e possibilitam a formação de novos direitos.

The present study addresses the influences of cognitive neuroscience in criminal law, more precisely in the concept of culpability as an element of crime. The problem lies in the fact that, while criminal dogmatics presupposes, for the characterization of guilt and, therefore, crime, the existence of a free individual, capable of acting in a way that is not deviant, neuroscientific studies show free will as an illusion. In view of this, we seek to verify to what extent the discoveries of neuroscience about free will influence culpability. To do so, it addresses, on the one hand, the understanding of neuroscientists, who deny the existence of free will, and, on the other, the understanding of penalists, who reject the idea of a human being determined by causal laws. O presente estudo aborda as influências da neurociência cognitiva no Direito Penal, mais precisamente no conceito de culpabilidade enquanto elemento do crime. A problemática reside no fato de que, enquanto a dogmática jurídico-penal pressupõe, para a caracterização da culpabilidade e, portanto, do crime, a existência de um sujeito livre, capaz de agir de forma que não a desviante, estudos neurocientíficos apontam o livre-arbítrio como mera ilusão. Diante disso, busca-se verificar em que medida as descobertas da neurociência acerca do livre-arbítrio exercem influência sobre a culpabilidade. Para tanto, aborda-se, de um lado, o entendimento de neurocientistas, que negam a existência do livre-arbítrio, e, de outro, o entendimento de penalistas, que rechaçam a ideia de um ser humano determinado por leis causais.

International audience; The increasing use of plant defense stimulators (PDS) and biostimulants (BS) to make agriculture more sustainable has led to questions about their action on plants. A new PhysBioGen approach is proposed with complementary tools: PHYSiological (root weight); BIOchemical and BIOlogical (secondary metabolite quantification and Plasmopara viticola development) and expressions of 161 GENes involved in metabolic plant functions. The proposed approach investigated the effects of three phytostimulants on Vitis vinifera: one PDS (ASM) and one BS chelated (CH) and another enriched with seaweed (SW). Distinct responses were obtained between the PDS and the two BS. In particular, we observed the persistence of anti-mildew efficacy over time, correlated with differentiated expressions of defense genes (VvROMT, VvSAMT, VvPR8). As expected, the two BS displayed more similarities to each other than to the PDS (flavonols, anthocyanins, free salicylic acid). However, the two BS revealed differences in the modulation of genes involved in defense and primary metabolism and some genes were identified as potential markers of their action (VvWRKY1, VvLOX9, VvPOD, VvPDV1, VvXIP1, VVDnaJ). Our results highlight the common and the specific effects of the two BS and the PDS. These new tools could help in understanding the mode of action of phytostimulants in order to achieve better quality and production yield and/or as a way to limit chemical inputs in the vineyard.

SummaryLipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs) were originally found as symbiotic signals called Nod Factors (Nod-LCOs) controlling nodulation of legumes by rhizobia. More recently LCOs were also found in symbiotic fungi and, more surprisingly, very widely in the kingdom fungi including in saprophytic and pathogenic fungi. The LCO-V(C18:1, Fuc/MeFuc), hereafter called Fung-LCOs, are the LCO structures most commonly found in fungi. This raises the question of how legume plants, such asMedicago truncatula, can perceive and discriminate between Nod-LCOs and these Fung-LCOs.To address this question, we performed a Genome Wide Association Study on 173 natural accessions ofMedicago truncatula, using a root branching phenotype and a newly developed local score approach.Both Nod- and Fung-LCOs stimulated root branching in most accessions but there was very little correlation in the ability to respond to these types of LCO molecules. Moreover, heritability of root response was higher for Nod-LCOs than for Fung-LCOs. We identified 123 loci for Nod-LCO and 71 for Fung-LCO responses, but only one was common.This suggests that Nod- and Fung-LCOs both control root branching but use different molecular mechanisms. The tighter genetic constraint of the root response to Fung-LCOs possibly reflects the ancestral origin of the biological activity of these molecules.

International audience; Untargeted metabolomics using liquid chromatog-raphy−mass spectrometry (LC−MS) is currently the gold-standard technique to determine the full chemical diversity in biological samples. However, this approach still has many limitations; notably, the difficulty of accurately estimating the number of unique metabolites profiled among the thousands of MS ion signals arising from chromatograms. Here, we describe a new workflow, MS-CleanR, based on the MS-DIAL/MS-FINDER suite, which tackles feature degeneracy and improves annotation rates. We show that implementation of MS-CleanR reduces the number of signals by nearly 80% while retaining 95% of unique metabolite features. Moreover, the annotation results from MS-FINDER can be ranked according to the database chosen by the user, which enhance identification accuracy. Application of MS-CleanR to the analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana grown in three different conditions fostered class separation resulting from multivariate data analysis and led to annotation of 75% of the final features. The full workflow was applied to metabolomic profiles from three strains of the leguminous plant Medicago truncatula that have different susceptibilities to the oomycete pathogen Aphanomyces euteiches. A group of glycosylated triterpenoids overrepresented in resistant lines were identified as candidate compounds conferring pathogen resistance. MS-CleanR is implemented through a Shiny interface for intuitive use by end-users (available at https://github.com/eMetaboHUB/MS-CleanR). U ntargeted or discovery-based metabolomics have become an essential tool in all biological sciences including clinical research, 1,2 plant science, 3 and natural product mining, 4 among many other applications. Living organisms are estimated to contain more than one million distinct compounds. 5 According to the MetaboLights database (DB), 80% of untargeted metabolomics workflows rely on liquid chromatography−mass spectrometry (LC−MS) (https:// www.ebi.ac.uk/metabolights/). Due to its broad coverage of metabolites, LC−MS based metabolomics has become the preferred tool to detect hundreds of compounds encountered in complex biological materials. Many software programs have been developed to turn features (m/z × retention time (RT) pairs) extracted from LC−MS raw data into chromatographic peak lists, including web-based interfaces such as XCMS, 6 Workflow4Metabolomics, 7 local GUI with MZmine, 8 and MS-DIAL. 9 Despite significant progress in feature extraction, it is challenging to accurately estimate the number of unique metabolites in a crude extract profiled by LC−MS. 10 On average, untargeted LC−MS yields hundred to thousands of signals, which may be attributed to either isotopes, contaminants, adducts, dimers, multimers, and heteromeric complexes or artifacts. The feature attribution processing which aims to decipher ion linkages is an essential step prior to metabolite annotation, which refers to tentative metabolite assignment to a given feature. Following these steps, the annotation rate can be calculated as the number of unique annotated metabolites over total features counts. Patti and colleagues 11 used the term "degenerate features" to describe feature relationships between multiple m/z signals arising from in-source phenomena and derived from the same metabolite. Their study demonstrated that feature inflation is highly underestimated in untargeted LC−MS based metabolomics. Additionally, this redundancy trend may have important consequences on metabolite annotation by increasing both false positive results and the number of "unknown" arising from wrongly attributed signals. This is especially true when

Untargeted metabolomics using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is currently the gold-standard technique to determine the full chemical diversity in biological samples. This approach still has many limitations, however; notably, the difficulty of estimating accurately the number of unique metabolites being profiled among the thousands of MS ion signals arising from chromatograms. Here, we describe a new workflow, MS-CleanR, based on the MS-DIAL/MS-FINDER suite, which tackles feature degeneracy and improves annotation rates. We show that implementation of MS-CleanR reduces the number of signals by nearly 80% while retaining 95% of unique metabolite features. Moreover, the annotation results from MS-FINDER can be ranked with respect to database chosen by the user, which improves identification accuracy. Application of MS-CleanR to the analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana grown in three different conditions improved class separation resulting from multivariate data analysis and lead to annotation of 75% of the final features. The full workflow was applied to metabolomic profiles from three strains of the leguminous plant Medicago truncatula that have different susceptibilities to the oomycete pathogen Aphanomyces euteiches; a group of glycosylated triterpenoids overrepresented in resistant lines were identified as candidate compounds conferring pathogen resistance. MS-CleanR is implemented through a Shiny interface for intuitive use by end-users (available at: https://github.com/eMetaboHUB/MS-CleanR).

This working paper presents the results of research carried out by the social policy team of the SoLaR network. The research examined how the Commission’s guidelines and recommendations in the field of EU social policy take effect in a number of Member States: Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, UK and Slovenia. We look at the transposition into the national legal order and complement insights with exploratory interviews with administrative authorities and judges regarding their view and their use of EU social soft law. The paper consists of two parts. The first section introduces the policy area and sheds light on the substance and policy-making process of the soft law instruments studied. The second part turns to the selected Member States. We comparatively assess the effects soft law took and discuss cross cutting aspects.

Using a genome-wide association mapping approach, we identified a new role for the GRAS transcription factor RAD1 in supporting infection by an oomycete root pathogen. Previously, RAD1 was exclusively implicated in symbiosis signalling., The roots of most land plants are colonized by symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) fungi. To facilitate this symbiosis, plant genomes encode a set of genes required for microbial perception and accommodation. However, the extent to which infection by filamentous root pathogens also relies on some of these genes remains an open question. Here, we used genome-wide association mapping to identify genes contributing to colonization of Medicago truncatula roots by the pathogenic oomycete Phytophthora palmivora. Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers most significantly associated with plant colonization response were identified upstream of RAD1, which encodes a GRAS transcription regulator first negatively implicated in root nodule symbiosis and recently identified as a positive regulator of AM symbiosis. RAD1 transcript levels are up-regulated both in response to AM fungus and, to a lower extent, in infected tissues by P. palmivora where its expression is restricted to root cortex cells proximal to pathogen hyphae. Reverse genetics showed that reduction of RAD1 transcript levels as well as a rad1 mutant are impaired in their full colonization by AM fungi as well as by P. palmivora. Thus, the importance of RAD1 extends beyond symbiotic interactions, suggesting a general involvement in M. truncatula microbe-induced root development and interactions with unrelated beneficial and detrimental filamentous microbes.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis associates most plants with fungi of the phylum Glomeromycota. The fungus penetrates into roots and forms within cortical cell branched structures called arbuscules for nutrient exchange. We discovered that miR171b has a mismatched cleavage site and is unable to downregulate the miR171 family target gene, LOM1 (LOST MERISTEMS 1). This mismatched cleavage site is conserved among plants that establish AM symbiosis, but not in non-mycotrophic plants. Unlike other members of the miR171 family, miR171b stimulates AM symbiosis and is expressed specifically in root cells that contain arbuscules. MiR171b protects LOM1 from negative regulation by other miR171 family members. These findings uncover a unique mechanism of positive post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression by miRNAs and demonstrate its relevance for the establishment of AM symbiosis.