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We compared the probability of hospitalization and death caused by COVID-19 in patients with comorbidities during three periods defined for this study: first-wave (FW), interwave period (IP), and second-wave (SW) observed in Mexico City.In this registry-based study, we included individuals over 20 years of age. During the FW (symptomatic), the IP, and the SW (symptomatic and asymptomatic), participants were diagnosed using nasopharyngeal swabs. Symptomatic individuals with risk factors for serious disease or death were referred to the hospital. SARS-CoV-2 infection was defined by RT-qPCR in all hospitalized patients. All data were added to the SISVER database. Bayesian analysis and False Discovery Rate were used for further evaluation.The study included 2 260 156 persons (mean age of 43.1 years). Of these, 8.6% suffered from DM, 11.6% arterial hypertension, and 9.7% obesity. Of the total, 666 694 persons tested positive (29.5%). Of the infected persons, a total of 85 587 (12.8%) were hospitalized: 24 023 in the FW; 16 935 in the IP, and 44 629 in the SW. Of the hospitalized patients, there were 42 979 deaths (50.2%), in the FW, 11 964 (49.8%), in the IP, 6794 (40.1%), and in the SW 24 221 (54.3%). The probability of death among individuals hospitalized with or without comorbidities increased consistently in all age groups. A significant increase in the Fatality Rate was observed in individuals with comorbidities (1.36E-19 = FDR = 3.36E-2). A similar trend was also observed in individuals without comorbidities (1.03E-44 = FDR = 5.58E-4).The data from this study show a considerable increase in the number of detected cases of infection between the FW and SW. In addition, 12.8% of those infected were hospitalized for severe COVID-19. A high mortality rate was observed among hospitalized patients (50%). An age-dependent probability of death was observed with a positive trend in hospitalized patients with and without comorbidities.

BackgroundWorldwide, it has been observed that there is a strong association between the severity of COVID-19 and with being over 40 years of age, having diabetes mellitus (DM), hypertension and/or obesity.ObjectiveTo compare the probability of death caused by COVID-19 in patients with comorbidities during three periods defined for this study as follows: first wave (March 23 to July 12, 2020), interwave period (July 13 to October 25, 2020), and the second wave (October 26, 2020, to March 29, 2021) using the different fatality rates observed in Mexico City.MethodsThe cohort studied included individuals over 20 years of age. During the first wave (symptomatic), the interwave period, and the second wave (symptomatic and asymptomatic), participants were diagnosed using nasopharyngeal swabs taken in kiosks. Symptomatic individuals with risk factors for serious disease or death were referred to hospital. SARS-CoV-2 infection was defined by real time polymerase chain reaction in all hospitalized patients. All data from hospitalized patients and outpatients were added to the SISVER database.ResultsThe total cohort size for this study was 2,260,156 persons (having a mean age of 43.1 years). Of these, 8.6% suffered from DM, 11.6% from hypertension, and 9.7% from obesity. Of the total of 2,260,156 persons, 666,694 tested positive (29.5%) to SARS CoV-2, (with a mean age of 45). During the first wave, 82,489 tested positive; in the interwave period, 112,115; and during the second wave, 472,090. That is, a considerable increase in the number of cases of infection was observed in all age groups between the first and second waves (an increase of +472% on the first wave).Of the infected persons, a total of 85,587 (12.8%) were hospitalized: 24,023 in the first wave (29.1% of those who tested positive in this period); 16,935 (15.1%) during the interwave period, and 44,629 (9.5%) in the second wave, which represents an increase of 85.77% on the first wave.Of the hospitalized patients, there were 42,979 deaths (50.2% of those hospitalized), in the first wave, 11,964 (49.8% of those hospitalized in this period), during the interwave period, 6,794 (40.1%), and in the second wave 24,221 (54.3%), an increase of +102.4% between the first wave and the second.While within the general population, the probability of a patient dying having both COVID-19 and one of the specified comorbidities (DM, obesity, or arterial hypertension) showed a systematic reduction across all age groups, the probability of death for a hospitalized patient with comorbidities increased across all age groups during the second wave. When comparing the fatality rate of hospitalized COVID-19 patients in the second wave with those of the first wave and the interwave period, a significant increase was observed across all age groups, even in individuals without comorbidities.ConclusionThe data from this study show a considerable increase in the number of detected cases of infection in all age groups between the first and second waves. In addition, 12.8% of those infected were hospitalized for severe COVID-19, representing an increase of +85.9% from the first wave to the second. A high mortality rate was observed among hospitalized patients (>50%), as was a higher probability of death in hospitalized COVID-19 patients with comorbidities for all age groups during the second wave, although there had been a slight decrease during the interwave period.SUMMARY BOXWhat is already known?Worldwide the resurging of COVID-19 cases in waves has been observed. In Mexico, like in the rest of the world, we have observed surges of SARS CoV-2 infections, COVID-19 hospitalizations and fatal outcomes followed by decreases leading to local minima. Pre-existing health conditions such as being older, having diabetes mellitus (DM), hypertension and/or obesity has been observed to be associated with an increase in the severity of COVID-19.What are the new findings?Between the first and second waves, considerable increases were observed in the number of detected cases of infection (+472%), in the number of hospitalized subjects (+85.9%), and the number of hospitalized subjects and deaths (+102.4%) in all age groups.When analysing only hospitalized individuals, with or without comorbidities, the Case Fatality Rate was high (50.2%), the probability of death increased considerably in all age groups between the first and second waves. This increase was more noticeable in those individuals with previously identified comorbidities (DM, hypertension, or obesity).An increased probability of death among individuals without comorbidities was observed between the first and second waves.What do the new findings imply?During the second wave, demand for hospitalization increased, magnifying the impact of age and comorbidities as risk factors. This situation highlights the importance of decreasing the prevalence of comorbidities among the population.

Introduction Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a global epidemic, and nations are struggling to implement effective healthcare strategies to reduce the burden. While efficacy studies demonstrate that metformin can reduce incident T2D by half among younger, obese adults with prediabetes, its real-world effectiveness are understudied, and its use for T2D prevention in primary care is low. We describe the design of a pragmatic trial to evaluate the incremental effectiveness of metformin, as an adjunct to a simple lifestyle counseling. Methods The “Prevencion de la Diabetes con Ejercicio, Nutricion y Tratamiento” [Diabetes Prevention with Exercise, Nutrition and Treatment; PRuDENTE, (Spanish acronym)] is a cluster-randomized trial in Mexico City's public primary healthcare system. The study randomly assigns 51 clinics to deliver one of two interventions for 36 months: 1) lifestyle only; 2) lifestyle plus metformin, to 3060 patients ages 30–65 with impaired fasting glucose and obesity. The primary endpoint is incident T2D (fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL, or HbA1c ≥6.5%). We will also measure a range of implementation-related process outcomes at the clinic-, clinician- and patient-levels to inform interpretations of effectiveness and enable efforts to refine, adapt, adopt and disseminate the model. We will also estimate the cost-effectiveness of metformin as an adjunct to lifestyle counseling in Mexico. Discussion Findings from this pragmatic trial will generate new translational knowledge in Mexico and beyond, both with respect to metformin's real-world effectiveness among an ‘at-risk’ population, and uncovering facilitators and barriers to the reach, adoption and implementation of metformin preventive therapy in public primary care settings. Trial registration This trial is registered at Clinicaltrials.gov ( NCT03194009 ).

Resumen Frente a las condiciones de trabajo definidas en el marco del neoliberalismo implementado en México, se problematiza las dinámicas laborales, identifica los principales problemas de acceso al sistema de salud y de seguridad social y discute la vulneración sistemática de derechos, principalmente del derecho al trabajo, a la seguridad social y a la salud. Se propone contribuir con propuestas para la construcción de un sistema de salud y seguridad social integral, incluyente y solidario que coadyuve a mejorar la vida de trabajadores y trabajadoras. Abstract In light of the labor conditions defined within the framework of neoliberalism implemented in Mexico, labor dynamics are problematized, the main problems of access to the health and social security system are identified and the systematic violation of rights – especially the right to work, to social security and to health – are discussed. The objective of this article is to contribute with proposals for the construction of a comprehensive, inclusive, healthcare and social security system that contributes to the improvement of the lives of workers.

(analítico) La investigación tiene como objetivo identificar los principales problemas de acceso a los servicios de salud de niños y niñas con diversidad funcional en América Latina. Se trata de una revisión sistemática. Se desarrollaron estrategias detalladas para la búsqueda individual en Health, Redalyc, Medline y SciELO entre mayo y junio de 2018. Se incluyeron artículos originales publicados entre enero 2013- julio 2018 en portugués, inglés o español. Se realizaron análisis descriptivos para la categorización de los estudios. Se identificaron 9 artículos, todos transversales de diseño descriptivo. A partir de los resultados obtenidos, quedó evidente que las dificultades de acceso a los servicios de salud están asociadas a la mayor vulnerabilidad a factores demográficos, socioeconómicos, siendo necesario traspasar las barreras existentes a través de la creación y efectividad de políticas públicas que garanticen acceso a la salud.

Resumen: Este trabajo aborda la conformación en los años recientes del sistema de salud en México. Se presenta un análisis desde la determinación social que condiciona su formulación actual, las consecuencias en las condiciones de vida y trabajo de la población, los ejes de la reforma técnico-legal que dieron pauta para su transformación. La permanencia de instituciones de seguridad social y la introducción de un modelo de aseguramiento individual, sus implicaciones y consecuencias observadas hoy día. Desde una perspectiva del derecho a la salud, se contrastan las acciones, recursos e intervenciones de ambos modelos de prestación de servicios, y se observa la relevancia del sistema de seguridad social sobre el Seguro Popular. Se concluye que las soluciones implantadas para reformar el sistema de salud no tienen los resultados postulados y, por el contrario, significan reducción de intervenciones, incremento de costos, disminución de capacidad instalada y de personal profesional para su operación, así, lejos de solucionar el problema, se incrementan las inequidades y no se resuelven las contradicciones estructurales. Existen nuevos desafíos para los sistemas de salud, donde es inevitable situar los análisis en un marco más amplio, y no sólo centrarse en la operación funcional, administrativa y financiera de los sistemas de salud en nuestros países. Abstract: This study addressed the shaping of Mexico’s health system in recent years, with an analysis of the social determination conditioning the system’s current formulation, the consequences for the population’s living and working conditions, and the technical and legal reform measures that shaped the system’s transformation. The article then analyzes the survival of social security institutions and the introduction of an individual insurance model and its current implications and consequences. From the perspective of the right to health, the article compares the measures, resources, and interventions in both health care models and highlights the relevance of the social security system for Popular Insurance. The article concludes that the measures implemented to reform the Mexican health system have failed to achieve the intended results; on the contrary, they have led to a reduction in interventions, rising costs, and a decrease in the installed capacity and professional personnel for the system’s operation, thus falling far short of solving the problem, rather aggravating the inequities without solving the system’s structural contradictions. Health systems face new challenges, inevitably requiring that the analyses be situated in a broader framework rather than merely focusing on the functional, administrative, and financial operation of the systems in the respective countries. Resumo: Este trabalho aborda a conformação, nos últimos anos, do sistema de saúde no México. Apresenta uma análise a partir da determinação social que condiciona a sua formulação atual, as consequências sobre as condições de vida e de trabalho da população, as diretrizes da reforma técnico-legal que embasaram a sua transformação. A permanência de instituições de seguridade social e a introdução de um modelo de plano de seguro individual, suas implicações e consequências observadas hoje. Desde a perspectiva do direito à saúde, comparam-se as ações, recursos e intervenções de ambos os modelos de prestação de serviços, e se examina a relevância do sistema de seguridade social com relação ao Seguro Popular. A conclusão é que as soluções implementadas para reformar o sistema de saúde não alcançaram os resultados pretendidos e, ao contrário, redundaram em redução de atos médicos, aumento dos custos, diminuição da capacidade instalada e do número de profissionais para a sua operação. Dessa forma, longe de solucionar o problema, aumentaram as desigualdades e não foram resolvidas as contradições estruturais. Existem novos desafios para os sistemas de saúde, para os quais é inevitável situar as análises em um marco mais amplo, e não apenas focando a operação funcional, administrativa e financeira dos sistemas de saúde em nossos países.

In light of the labor conditions defined within the framework of neoliberalism implemented in Mexico, labor dynamics are problematized, the main problems of access to the health and social security system are identified and the systematic violation of rights - especially the right to work, to social security and to health - are discussed. The objective of this article is to contribute with proposals for the construction of a comprehensive, inclusive, healthcare and social security system that contributes to the improvement of the lives of workers.Frente a las condiciones de trabajo definidas en el marco del neoliberalismo implementado en México, se problematiza las dinámicas laborales, identifica los principales problemas de acceso al sistema de salud y de seguridad social y discute la vulneración sistemática de derechos, principalmente del derecho al trabajo, a la seguridad social y a la salud. Se propone contribuir con propuestas para la construcción de un sistema de salud y seguridad social integral, incluyente y solidario que coadyuve a mejorar la vida de trabajadores y trabajadoras.

This study addressed the shaping of Mexico's health system in recent years, with an analysis of the social determination conditioning the system's current formulation, the consequences for the population's living and working conditions, and the technical and legal reform measures that shaped the system's transformation. The article then analyzes the survival of social security institutions and the introduction of an individual insurance model and its current implications and consequences. From the perspective of the right to health, the article compares the measures, resources, and interventions in both health care models and highlights the relevance of the social security system for Popular Insurance. The article concludes that the measures implemented to reform the Mexican health system have failed to achieve the intended results; on the contrary, they have led to a reduction in interventions, rising costs, and a decrease in the installed capacity and professional personnel for the system's operation, thus falling far short of solving the problem, rather aggravating the inequities without solving the system's structural contradictions. Health systems face new challenges, inevitably requiring that the analyses be situated in a broader framework rather than merely focusing on the functional, administrative, and financial operation of the systems in the respective countries.

El objetivo del artículo fue conocer la asociación entre los diferentes tipos de carencia social y económica y los niveles de mortalidad infantil reportados durante el 2008 en México. Se realizó un estudio ecológico, analizando la correlación y el riesgo relativo entre el índice de desarrollo humano y distintos niveles de carencias sociales y económicas con las tasas de mortalidad infantil reportadas a nivel nacional y estatal. Existe una fuerte correlación entre un mayor nivel de desarrollo humano con una menor tasa de mortalidad. La carencia educativa y el atraso en la calidad y espacio de la vivienda se asocian con una mayor tasa de mortalidad infantil. Si bien la mortalidad infantil en México ha disminuido notablemente en los últimos 28 años, su reducción no ha sido homogénea y se mantienen inequidades que determinan las tasas de mortalidad en relación a los niveles diferenciados de pobreza. Es necesario el diseño de programas con una visión transdisciplinaria que permitan disminuir las tasas de mortalidad con el pleno desarrollo de los individuos y sus familiasThe aim of this study was to assess the association between different types of economic and social deprivation and infant mortality rates reported in 2008 in Mexico. We conducted an ecological study analyzing the correlation and relative risk between the human development index and levels of social and economic differences in State and national infant mortality rates. There was a strong correlation between higher human development and lower infant mortality. Low schooling and poor housing and crowding were associated with higher infant mortality. Although infant mortality has declined dramatically in Mexico over the last 28 years, the decrease has not been homogeneous, and there are persistent inequalities that determine mortality rates in relation to different poverty levels. Programs with a multidisciplinary approach are needed to decrease infant mortality rates through comprehensive individual and family development.

El objetivo del artículo fue conocer la asociación entre los diferentes tipos de carencia social y económica y los niveles de mortalidad infantil reportados durante el 2008 en México. Se realizó un estudio ecológico, analizando la correlación y el riesgo relativo entre el índice de desarrollo humano y distintos niveles de carencias sociales y económicas con las tasas de mortalidad infantil reportadas a nivel nacional y estatal. Existe una fuerte correlación entre un mayor nivel de desarrollo humano con una menor tasa de mortalidad. La carencia educativa y el atraso en la calidad y espacio de la vivienda se asocian con una mayor tasa de mortalidad infantil. Si bien la mortalidad infantil en México ha disminuido notablemente en los últimos 28 años, su reducción no ha sido homogénea y se mantienen inequidades que determinan las tasas de mortalidad en relación a los niveles diferenciados de pobreza. Es necesario el diseño de programas con una visión transdisciplinaria que permitan disminuir las tasas de mortalidad con el pleno desarrollo de los individuos y sus familias The aim of this study was to assess the association between different types of economic and social deprivation and infant mortality rates reported in 2008 in Mexico. We conducted an ecological study analyzing the correlation and relative risk between the human development index and levels of social and economic differences in State and national infant mortality rates. There was a strong correlation between higher human development and lower infant mortality. Low schooling and poor housing and crowding were associated with higher infant mortality. Although infant mortality has declined dramatically in Mexico over the last 28 years, the decrease has not been homogeneous, and there are persistent inequalities that determine mortality rates in relation to different poverty levels. Programs with a multidisciplinary approach are needed to decrease infant mortality rates through comprehensive individual and family development.

OBJETIVO. Evaluar las consecuencias de la subrogación privada sobre el proceso general de abasto y el surtimiento completo de recetas en los servicios estatales de salud. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS. La investigación se realizó utilizando técnicas cuantitativas y cualitativas en 13 entidades federativas. La información se recolectó mediante entrevistas y observación directa. Las entrevistas se aplicaron a personal de los servicios estatales de salud relacionados con la cadena de abasto de medicamentos y a usuarios de los servicios de atención. La aproximación cuantitativa examinó, en una muestra por conveniencia de usuarios, el porcentaje de recetas completas surtidas. RESULTADOS. Las entidades que han optado por el modelo tercerizado en su totalidad y lo controlan adecuadamente han incrementado el suministro de medicamentos entre sus usuarios y garantizado el abasto en las unidades de atención a su cargo. Otras entidades con modelo tercerizado tienen múltiples problemas: compra directa de medicamentos no incluidos en el cuadro básico, incumplimiento de proveedores y escasez de insumos en los laboratorios que proveen a la empresa. Como principales inconvenientes de todos los modelos se identificaron la subordinación de los criterios médicos a los criterios administrativos; la insuficiente planeación basada en las necesidades locales de atención; la heterogeneidad de los procedimientos; el conocimiento insuficiente de la normatividad y la falta de regulación. CONCLUSIÓN. Los resultados indican que la incorporación de proveedores privados en la cadena de abasto de medicamentos podría no ser la solución para abatir el desabasto que padecen los servicios de salud, especialmente a escala hospitalaria. El cambio hacia modelos subrogados (tercerizados) se ha desarrollado sin incorporar mecanismos de evaluación, y las consecuencias que esta transición puede acarrear sobre los sistemas estatales de salud deben ser investigadas con mayor profundidad.OBJECTIVE. To assess the consequences of private outsourcing on the overall supply and filling of prescriptions in state health services. MATERIAL AND METHODS. The research was conducted using quantitative and qualitative techniques in 13 states. The information was collected through interviews and direct observation. The interviews were carried on staff of state health services related to the drug supply chain and users of health services. The quantitative approach examined the percentage of stocked full recipes in a sample of users. RESULTS States that have opted for the fully outsourced model, and properly monitored this choice, have increased the supply of drugs to their users and guaranteed the supply in the care units in charge. Other states with the outsourced model have multiple problems: direct purchase of drugs not included in the basic drugs catalogue, failure of suppliers and shortage of supplies in the laboratories that provide the company. The main disadvantages identified in all models were: the subordination of the medical criteria to administrative criteria, insufficient planning based on local care needs, heterogeneous procedures, insufficient knowledge of regulations and lack of normativity. CONCLUSION. The results indicate that the incorporation of private providers in the drug supply chain may not be the solution to bring down the shortage faced by health services, especially at the hospital level. The shift to outsourcing models has developed without incorporating evaluation mechanisms and the consequences that this transition can have on state health systems must be investigated more deeply.

In the last 30 years, Mexico has faced major crises in its political, economic, and social life. These crises have affected living conditions and health. With the implementation in the 1980's of structural adjustment and economic stabilization policies, Mexico saw a rapid growth of poverty accelerating trends toward social polarization and social division. The current crisis, fueled by deregulation of the global financial markets, only deepens the tendency towards economic stagnation. It has led to an increase in unemployment, worsening income inequalities, and generalized inflation. The increase in food prices, in particular, has made life more difficult for the Mexican population. The crisis has had a palpable and concrete impact on living conditions, health status, and food security for diverse social groups.

Introduction The recent discussion of the social determinants of health, which has been promoted by the WHO as a way to approach global health conditions is neither a new nor a foreign subject for Latin American social medicine or collective health. Indeed, this approach to health derives from the principles of 19th century European social medicine which accepted that the health of the population is a matter of social concern, that social and economic conditions have an important bearing on health and disease, and that these relationships should be subjected to scientific enquiry. (Rosen, 1985:81) The specific socio-historical conditions of Latin America in the 1970’s fostered the development of an innovative, critical, and socially-based based health analysis, which was seen in an evolving theoretical approach with deep social roots. (Cohn, 2003) This analysis calls for scientific work which is committed to changing living and working conditions and to improving the health of the popular classes. (Waitzkin y col. 2001; Iriart y col. 2002). From its beginning, this school of socio-medical thought recognized that collective health has two main areas of research: 1) the distribution and determinants of health and disease and 2) the interpretation, technical knowledge, and specialized practices concerning health, disease, and death. The goal is to understand health and disease as differentiated moments in the human lifecycle, subject to permanent change, and expressing the biological nature of the human body under specific forms of social organization, all this in such a way as to allow discussion of causality and determination. (Breilh y Granda,1982; Laurell, 1982). Latin American social medicine criticized biomedical and conventional epidemiological approaches for isolating health and disease from social context, misinterpreting social processes as biological, conceptualizing health phenomena in individualistic terms, and adopting the methodological procedures of the natural sciences

This paper analyzes the concept of health equity, drawing on ideas of social justice, of rights and values, and of the social and economic determinants which define living conditions and power relations among social groups. Differing schools of thought concerning health inequality and inequity in health are considered, highlighting contemporary approaches and the conceptual and operational diversity of definitions. We adopt the viewpoint of collective health and outline the elements which are essential to the understanding of inequity: the role of social, economic, political, cultural and ideological determinants on the equity of health outcomes, access to services and quality of care. We conclude that theoretical/conceptual frameworks must be formally spelled out before we can advance our understanding of health equity. The use and interpretation of terminology is made problematic by the abundance of definitions, although there appears to be a consensus on the need to further explore - in a varied, complementary and integrated manner - aspects of health care itself and of its environment. From a collective health perspective, we need to move beyond traditional approaches, a challenge which will enable better understanding of the social dynamics which, when expressed as inequalities in health, constitute social inequity.

The paper deals with the history of Latin America and the development of sociology and social medicine thought it. It makes a balance of the emergence and contributions of this innovative thinking.

En los últimos 17 años, la política de salud en México ha transitado de una concepción de atención integral y de extensión gradual de coberturas como responsabilidad del Estado, a través de las instituciones públicas de salud, a una activa promoción gubernamental de la mercantilización de servicios, complementada con una política de beneficencia hacia la población pobre. En esta transformación se identifican tres periodos que se corresponden con los sexenios presidenciales y que expresan tres momentos distintos de la reforma del sector salud: el primero (1982-1988) caracterizado como transicional, el segundo (1988-1994), en donde emerge con claridad la estrategia bipolar de mercantilización y beneficencia y el tercero (1994-2000), en donde las estrategias gubernamentales se orientan a fortalecer los mercados de la salud. Esta reestructuración del sector salud ha sido instrumentada en forma explícita desde 1982 y forma parte del conjunto de reformas secundarias derivadas de la adecuación subordinada del campo social a las políticas de ajuste estructural y a los megaproyectos económicos y sociales impuestos por los organismos financieros internacionales.In the last 17 years, health policy in Mexico has been shifted from a conception of integrated health care and a gradually extended coverage as a major responsability of the State and health care public institutions, to in the one hand, a very active promotion of market and private profit in health services and in the other, poverty relief programs. In this paper we identify different periods corresponding to the last three presidential terms. Each clearly represent different stages of health sector reform: transitional (1982-1988), mercantilisation and poverty relief (1988-1994) and, strengtheing of the so called health markets (1994-2000). The analised transformation is part of the set of secundary reforms subordinated to the structural adjusment and the economic and social megaprojects impossed by the international financial intitutions.

Los problemas de salud pública han sido estudiados desde muy diversas perspectivas y utilizando diferentes modelos teóricos y metodológicos. Dos modelos que han sido frecuentemente utilizados son el modelo epidemiológico clásico y el modelo epidemiológico social. Estos modelos emplean distintos criterios conceptuales, metodológicos e ideológicos. Se objetivó hacer una contrastación entre estos modelos de acuerdo a los criterios mencionados, utilizando el estudio de la obesidad como ejemplo de la utilización de estos modelos. Esta contrastación muestra que el conocimiento generado por cada modelo es muy distinto. Se discuten posibles áreas de complementariedad entre ambos modelos y la utilización de las ciencias sociales como estrategia para ampliar nuestro conocimiento sobre problemas de salud pública, en especial el problema de la obesidad. Public health problems have been analyzed over time using different approaches involving a variety of methodological and theoretical models. The classical epidemiological model and the social epidemiological model are two examples of models used in public health research. Although each of these models covers a whole range of public research approaches, it is possible to identify the different theoretical and methodological criteria and the different ideological assumptions on which they are based. The objective of this article is to make a comparison of the criteria used by the classical and social epidemiological models in the study of public health problems, with special emphasis on the study of obesity. This comparison shows that the knowledge generated by studies carried out under each of these models is rather different, as an effect of the different theoretical, methodological and ideological criteria used by each model. However, far from being contradictory, the knowledge generated by each model can complement that generated by the other. Finally, the inclusion of social sciences as a tool for the analysis of public health problems, specifically the problem of obesity, is discussed. Os problemas de saúde pública têm sido estudados sob as mais diversas perspectivas, utilizando diferentes modelos teóricos e metodolólogicos. Os mais freqüentemente utilizados são o epidemiológico clássico e o social. Esses modelos empregam diferentes critérios conceituais, metodológicos e ideológicos. Nesse sentido, foi feita uma revisão com o objetivo de comparar esses critérios, utilizando o estudo de obesidade como exemplo de utilização desses modelos. Esta comparação mostra que os conhecimentos produzidos por cada modelo é muito diferente. São discutidas possíveis áreas complementares entre ambos os modelos e o uso das ciências sociais como estratégia para ampliar os conhecimentos sobre problemas de saúde pública, em especial o problema da obesidade.

Investing in Health is the World Bank's blueprint for a new health policy within the context of structural adjustment. While this document includes a broad range of arguments, its implicit premises are neoliberal as can be deduced from its “agenda for action.” Health is defined as a private responsibility and health care as a private good. This leads to a health policy based on two complementary principles: the reduction of state intervention and public responsibility, and the promotion of diversity and competition (i.e., privatization). Thus, public institutions should provide only a limited number of public goods and narrowly defined, cost-efficient forms of relief for the poor. All other health-related activities are considered private duties, to be resolved by the market, NGOs, or families. The World Bank policy provides a pragmatic contribution to efforts to achieve fiscal balance. However, it also pushes to recommodify health care and to turn health into a terrain for capital accumulation through the selective privatization of health-related financial and “discretionary” services. The proposal implies large-scale experimentation and dismantling of public institutions which are the only alternative now accessible to the majority. It rejects health as a human need and a social right, and violates basic values by claiming that life and death decisions can be justly made by the market or through a cost-effectiveness formula.

This study presents a critical approach on health sector reform in Mexico and its impact on access and equity in state health systems. We discuss the main strategies adopted and made an assessment of its contribution to achieving equity in health, using socioeconomic indicators of health services and interventions for two moments, 1990 y 2002. We conclude that the dynamics of deepening inequalities in the period and the transformation of state health systems do not contribute to the achievement of equity in access.

To assess the consequences of private outsourcing on the overall supply and filling of prescriptions in state health services.The research was conducted using quantitative and qualitative techniques in 13 states. The information was collected through interviews and direct observation. The interviews were carried on staff of state health services related to the drug supply chain and users of health services. The quantitative approach examined the percentage of stocked full recipes in a sample of users.States that have opted for the fully outsourced model, and properly monitored this choice, have increased the supply of drugs to their users and guaranteed the supply in the care units in charge. Other states with the outsourced model have multiple problems: direct purchase of drugs not included in the basic drugs catalogue, failure of suppliers and shortage of supplies in the laboratories that provide the company. The main disadvantages identified in all models were: the subordination of the medical criteria to administrative criteria, insufficient planning based on local care needs, heterogeneous procedures, insufficient knowledge of regulations and lack of normativity.The results indicate that the incorporation of private providers in the drug supply chain may not be the solution to bring down the shortage faced by health services, especially at the hospital level. The shift to outsourcing models has developed without incorporating evaluation mechanisms and the consequences that this transition can have on state health systems must be investigated more deeply.

Objetivo. Evaluar las consecuencias de la subrogación privada sobre el proceso general de abasto y el surtimiento completo de recetas en los servicios estatales de salud. Material y métodos. La investigación se realizó utilizando técnicas cuantitativas y cualitativas en 13 entidades federativas. La información se recolectó mediante entrevistas y observación directa. Las entrevistas se aplicaron a personal de los servicios estatales de salud relacionados con la cadena de abasto de medicamentos y a usuarios de los servicios de atención. La aproximación cuantitativa examinó, en una muestra por conveniencia de usuarios, el porcentaje de recetas completas surtidas. Resultados. Las entidades que han optado por elmodelo tercerizado en su totalidad y lo controlan adecuadamente han incrementado el suministro de medicamentos entre sus usuarios y garantizado el abasto en las unidades de atención a su cargo. Otras entidades con modelo tercerizadotienen múltiples problemas: compra directa de medicamentos no incluidos en el cuadro básico, incumplimiento de proveedores y escasez de insumos en los laboratorios que proveen a la empresa. Como principales inconvenientes de todos los modelos se identificaron la subordinación de los criterios médicos a los criterios administrativos; la insuficiente planeación basada en las necesidades locales de atención; la heterogeneidad de los procedimientos; el conocimiento insuficiente de la normatividad y la falta de regulación. Conclusión. Los resultados indican que la incorporación de proveedores privados en la cadena de abasto de medicamentos podríano ser la solución para abatir el desabasto que padecen los servicios de salud, especialmente a escala hospitalaria. El cambio hacia modelos subrogados (tercerizados) se ha desarrollado sin incorporar mecanismos de evaluación, y las consecuencias que esta transición puede acarrear sobrelos sistemas estatales de salud deben ser investigadas con mayor profundidad.

This paper presents a discussion regarding Public Health's main challenges: knowledge of it, professional practice and training human resources. It begins by recognising Latin-America's unequal and polar socio-sanitary context and the sanitary field's myriad single referents, paying special attention to essential public health functions, the Millennium development goals and the Latin-American Association of Public Health Education. Emphasis is placed on three components: knowledge of public health (levels, domains, disciplines, temporality, dimensions and complexity), social practice (state-public, collective general practice and group professional practice) and human resources' training (professional, technical, training and up-dating). An essential challenge is then identified for each of these components and a set of proposals to be launched from the Latin-American Association of Public Health Education is outlined (interchange, partnerships and advocacy).

"El sistema hidroeléctrico estudiado está integrado por el conjunto de recursos naturales y materiales necesarios para la producción, transformación y distribución de energía eléctrica en la Zona Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México. De este complejo proceso de trabajo se generan una gran cantidad de riesgos físicos, químicos y mecánicos y, también, exigencias y estresores. La presente investigación pretende explicar más ampliamente la relación entre estos problemas y la salud en un grupo de trabajadores que desarrollan su actividad en una planta generadorade energía eléctrica. El estudio fue transversal y participaron todos los trabajadores de base del sistema hidroeléctrico (N = 318). Se realizó en dos fases: en la primera se identificó el proceso de trabajo general y la detección de los principales riesgos laborales. En la segunda se identificó el perfil de morbilidad, a través de los expedientes clínicos de los trabajadores y se recogieron los reportes de accidentes de trabajo. Se llevaron a cabo entrevistas a profundidad con cada responsable de área. El análisis conjunto de estas dos etapas permitió la construcción de mapas de salud laboral y la identificación de los principales riesgos y daños en los trabajadores. Las infecciones de las vías respiratorias y los trastornos relacionados con situaciones de estrés fueron las dos causas de morbilidad más importantes. La tasa de incidencia anual de accidentes fue de 14.2 por cada 100 trabajadores, la cual es más de cuatro veces superior a la medianacional. Se plantean las asociaciones encontradas entre estos problemas y se explican las medidas de protección, generales e individuales, propuestas."

En los últimos 17 años, la política de salud en México ha transitado de una concepción de atención integral y de extensión gradual de coberturas como responsabilidad del Estado, a través de las instituciones públicas de salud, a una activa promoción gubernamental de la mercantilización de servicios, complementada con una política de beneficencia hacia la población pobre. En esta transformación se identifican tres periodos que se corresponden con los sexenios presidenciales y que expresan tres momentos distintos de la reforma del sector salud: el primero (1982-1988) caracterizado como transicional, el segundo (1988-1994), en donde emerge con claridad la estrategia bipolar de mercantilización y beneficencia y el tercero (1994-2000), en donde las estrategias gubernamentales se orientan a fortalecer los mercados de la salud. Esta reestructuración del sector salud ha sido instrumentada en forma explícita desde 1982 y forma parte del conjunto de reformas secundarias derivadas de la adecuación subordinada del campo social a las políticas de ajuste estructural y a los megaproyectos económicos y sociales impuestos por los organismos financieros internacionales. In the last 17 years, health policy in Mexico has been shifted from a conception of integrated health care and a gradually extended coverage as a major responsability of the State and health care public institutions, to in the one hand, a very active promotion of market and private profit in health services and in the other, poverty relief programs. In this paper we identify different periods corresponding to the last three presidential terms. Each clearly represent different stages of health sector reform: transitional (1982-1988), mercantilisation and poverty relief (1988-1994) and, strengtheing of the so called health markets (1994-2000). The analised transformation is part of the set of secundary reforms subordinated to the structural adjusment and the economic and social megaprojects impossed by the international financial intitutions.