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Graphical abstract Abstract 7-Ketocholesterol (or 7-oxocholesterol) is an oxysterol essentially formed by cholesterol autoxidation. It is often found at enhanced levels in the body fluids and/or target tissues of patients with age-related diseases (cardiovascular, neuronal, and ocular diseases) as well as in subjects concerned with civilization diseases (type 2 diabetes, bowel diseases, and metabolic syndrome). The involvement of increased 7-ketocholesterol levels in the pathophysiology of these diseases is widely suspected. Indeed, 7-ketocholesterol at elevated concentrations is a powerful inducer of oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular degeneration which are common features of all these diseases. It is important to better know the origin of 7-ketocholesterol (diet, incidence of environmental factors, and endogenous formation (autoxidation and enzymatic synthesis)) and its inactivation mechanisms which include esterification, sulfation, oxidation, and reduction. This knowledge will make it possible to act at different levels to regulate 7-ketocholesterol level and counteract its toxicity in order to limit the incidence of diseases associated with this oxysterol. These different points as well as food and biomedical applications are addressed in this review.

Aluminum (Al) is recognized potent neurotoxic metal, which causes oxidative stress leading to intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and neuronal cell death in various neurodegenerative diseases. Among several medicinal plants with beneficial effects on health, curcumin acts as a multi-functional drug with antioxidant activity. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of curcumin against aluminum induced-oxidative stress and astrocytes death, in vitro ad in vivo. Incubation of cultured rat astrocytes with two concentrations of Al (37 μM and 150 μM) for 1 h provoked a dose-dependent reduction of the number of living cells as evaluated by Fluorescein diacetate and lactate dehydrogenase assay. Al-treated cells exhibited a reduction of both superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase activities. Pretreatment of astrocytes with curcumin (81 μM) prevented Al-induced cell death. Regarding in vivo study, rats were exposed acutely during three consecutive days to three different doses of Al (25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg, i.p injection), together with curcumin treatment (30 mg/kg). For the chronic model, animals were exposed to Al (3 g/l) in drinking water from intrauterine age to 4 months ages, plus curcumin treatment (175 mg/kg). Data showed that both acute and chronic Al intoxication induced an obvious astrogliosis within motor cortex and hippocampus, while, such effects were restored by curcumin. We showed herein that Al was highly toxic, induced astrocytes death. Then, curcumin protected astrocytes against Al-toxicity. The cytoprotective potential of curcumin is initiated by stimulation of endogenous antioxidant system.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a medicinal plant, originally cultivated in the East and Middle East, and later in some Mediterranean countries. Saffron is obtained from the stigmas of the plant. Currently, the use of saffron is undergoing a revival. The medicinal virtues of saffron, its culinary use and its high added value have led to the clarification of its phytochemical profile and its biological and therapeutic characteristics. Saffron is rich in carotenoids and terpenes. The major products of saffron are crocins and crocetin (carotenoids) deriving from zeaxanthin, pirocrocin and safranal, which give it its taste and aroma, respectively. Saffron and its major compounds have powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. Anti-tumor properties have also been described. The goal of this review is to present the beneficial effects of saffron and its main constituent molecules on neuropsychiatric diseases (depression, anxiety and schizophrenia) as well as on the most frequent age-related diseases (cardiovascular, ocular and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as sarcopenia). Overall, the phytochemical profile of saffron confers many beneficial virtues on human health and, in particular, on the prevention of age-related diseases, which is a major asset reinforcing the interest for this medicinal plant.

International audience; The existence of specific binding sites for benzodiazepines (BZs) in the brain has prompted the search for endogenous BZ receptor ligands designated by the generic term « endozepines ». This has led to the identification of an 86-amino acid polypeptide capable of displacing [3H]diazepam binding to brain membranes, thus called diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI). It was subsequently found that the sequence of DBI is identical to that of a lipid carrier protein termed acyl-CoA-binding protein (ACBP). The primary structure of DBI/ACBP has been well preserved, suggesting that endozepines exert vital functions. The DBI/ACBP gene is expressed by astroglial cells in the central nervous system, and by various cell types in peripheral organs. Endoproteolytic cleavage of DBI/ACBP generates several bioactive peptides including a triakontatetraneuropeptide that acts as a selective ligand of peripheral BZ receptors/translocator protein (PBR/TSPO), and an octadecaneuropeptide that activates a G protein-coupled receptor and behaves as an allosteric modulator of the GABAAR. Although DBI/ACBP is devoid of a signal peptide, endozepines are released by astrocytes in a regulated manner. Consistent with the diversity and wide distribution of BZ-binding sites, endozepines appear to exert a large array of biological functions and pharmacological effects. Thus, intracerebroventricular administration of DBI or derived peptides induces proconflict and anxiety-like behaviors, and reduces food intake. Reciprocally, the expression of DBI/ACBP mRNA is regulated by stress and metabolic signals. In vitro, endozepines stimulate astrocyte proliferation and protect neurons and astrocytes from apoptotic cell death. Endozepines also regulate neurosteroid biosynthesis and neuropeptide expression, and promote neurogenesis. In peripheral organs, endozepines activate steroid hormone production, stimulate acyl chain ceramide synthesis and trigger pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. The expression of the DBI/ACBP gene is enhanced in addiction/withdrawal animal models, in patients with neurodegenerative disorders and in various types of tumors. We review herein the current knowledge concerning the various actions of endozepines and discusses the physiopathological implications of these regulatory gliopeptides.

Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and death of neuronal cells. To counteract such damage and to favor neurogenesis, neurotrophic factors could be used as therapeutic agents. Octadecaneuropeptide (ODN), produced by astrocytes, is a potent neuroprotective agent. In N2a cells, we studied the ability of ODN to promote neuronal differentiation. This parameter was evaluated by phase contrast microscopy, staining with crystal violet, cresyl blue, and Sulforhodamine 101. The effect of ODN on cell viability and mitochondrial activity was determined with fluorescein diacetate and DiOC6(3), respectively. The impact of ODN on the topography of mitochondria and peroxisomes, two tightly connected organelles involved in nerve cell functions and lipid metabolism, was evaluated by transmission electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy: detection of mitochondria with MitoTracker Red, and peroxisome with an antibody directed against the ABCD3 peroxisomal transporter. The profiles in fatty acids, cholesterol, and cholesterol precursors were determined by gas chromatography, in some cases coupled with mass spectrometry. Treatment of N2a cells with ODN (10&minus, 14 M, 48 h) induces neurite outgrowth. ODN-induced neuronal differentiation was associated with modification of topographical distribution of mitochondria and peroxisomes throughout the neurites and did not affect cell viability and mitochondrial activity. The inhibition of ODN-induced N2a differentiation with H89, U73122, chelerythrine and U0126 supports the activation of a PKA/PLC/PKC/MEK/ERK-dependent signaling pathway. Although there is no difference in fatty acid profile between control and ODN-treated cells, the level of cholesterol and some of its precursors (lanosterol, desmosterol, lathosterol) was increased in ODN-treated cells. The ability of ODN to induce neuronal differentiation without cytotoxicity reinforces the interest for this neuropeptide with neurotrophic properties to overcome nerve cell damage in major neurodegenerative diseases.

International audience; Oxidative stress, resulting from accumulation of reactive oxygen species, plays a critical role in astroglial cell death occurring in diverse neuropathological conditions. Numerous studies indicate that neuroglobin (Ngb) promotes neuron survival, but nothing is known regarding the action of Ngb in astroglial cell survival. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the potential glioprotective effect of Ngb on hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2)-induced oxidative stress and apop-tosis in cultured mouse astrocytes. Incubation of cells with subnanomolar concentrations of Ngb (10 À14 –10 À10 M) was found to prevent both H 2 O 2-evoked reduction in surviving cells number and accumulation of reactive oxygen species in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, Ngb treatment abolishes H 2 O 2-induced increase in mitochondrial oxygen consumption rates. Concomitantly, Ngb treatment rescues H 2 O 2-associated reduced expression of endogenous antiox-idant enzymes (superoxide dismutases and catalase) and prevents the stimulation of the expression of pro-inflammatory genes (inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2, and interleukin (IL) IL-6 and IL-33). Moreover, Ngb blocks the stimulation of Bax (pro-apoptotic) and the inhibition of Bcl-2 (anti-apoptotic) gene expression induced by H 2 O 2 , which in turn abolishes caspase 3 activation. The protective effect of Ngb upon H 2 O 2 induced activation of caspase 3 activity and cell death can be accounted for by activation of protein kinase A and mitogen-activated protein kinase transduction cascade. Finally, we demonstrate that Ngb increases Akt phosphoryla-tion and prevents H 2 O 2-provoked inhibition of ERK and Akt phosphorylation. Taken together, these data demonstrate for the first time that Ngb is a glioprotective agent that prevents H 2 O 2-induced oxidative stress and apoptotic astroglial cell death. Protection of astrocytes from oxidative insult may thus contribute to the neuroprotective effect of Ngb.

Oxidative stress is involved in the pathogenesis of smoking-related disease. Protection of astrocytes from oxidative insult appears essential to maintain brain function. In this study, we have investigated the effect of gestational cigarette exposure on astrocyte survival. Pregnant female were randomly allocated to the control group or to the cigarette smoke group in which they were placed in an exposure chamber and inhale three cigarettes smoke twice a day for a period of 20 days. The control group was kept in the exposure chamber for the same duration, but without exposure to cigarette smoke. Newborn rats from both groups were weighed 24 h after birth and then cerebral hemispheres were collected for astrocyte culture. Incubation of astrocytes isolated from animals exposed to cigarette smoke with 300 μM H2O2 for 1 h induced a significant decrease of the proportion of surviving cells compared to cells isolated form control animals. We have observed that H2O2-treated astroglial cells derived from cigarette smoke exposure showed more reduced superoxide dismutase and catalase activities than H2O2-treated astroglial cells from control animals. In conclusion, this study indicates that astroglial cells derived from newborn rats exposed in utero to cigarette smoke are more vulnerable to oxidative assault than cultured astrocytes obtained from control animals. These results point out the existence of excitotoxic lesions in newborn exposed in utero to cigarette smoke and suggest that despite their high antioxidative activities, astrocytes cannot survive and protect neurons under massive oxidative stress.

International audience; Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder that can arise after long-term exposure to environmental oxidative stressors, such as the herbicide paraquat (PQ). Here we investigated the potential neuroprotective action of vertebrate pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) against PQ in Drosophila. We found that pre-treatment with this neuropeptide applied to the ventral nerve cord (VNC) at low doses markedly extended the survival of wild-type decapitated flies exposed to neurotoxic levels of PQ or dopamine (DA). In contrast and interestingly, application of a PACAP receptor antagonist, PACAP-6-38, had opposite effects, significantly decreasing the resistance of flies to PQ. PACAP also reduced PQ-induced caspase activation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in the VNC. We then searched for the endogenous neuropeptide receptor potentially involved in PACAP-mediated neuroprotection in Drosophila. Knocking down the gene encoding the receptor Han/PDFR of the neuropeptide pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) in all neurons conferred to flies higher resistance to PQ, whereas PDFR downregulation restricted to PDF or DA neurons did not increase PQ resistance, but remarkably suppressed the neuroprotective action of PACAP. Further experiments performed with Pdf and Pdfr-deficient mutant strains confirmed that PDF and its receptor are required for PACAP-mediated neuroprotection in flies. We also provide evidence using split-green fluorescent protein (split-GFP) reconstitution that PDF neurons make synaptic contacts onto DA neurons in the abdominal VNC. Our results therefore suggest that the protective action of PACAP against PQ-induced defects in the Drosophila nervous system involves the modulation of PDFR signaling in a small number of interconnected neurons.

International audience; Oxidative stress, associated with various neurodegenerative diseases, promotes ROS generation, impairs cellular antioxidant defenses, and finally, triggers both neurons and astroglial cell death by apoptosis. Astrocytes specifically synthesize and release endozepines, a family of regulatory peptides, including the octadecaneuropeptide (ODN). We have previously reported that ODN acts as a potent neuroprotective agent that prevents 6-OHDA-induced apoptotic neuronal death. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the potential glioprotective effect of ODN on 6-OHDA-induced oxidative stress and cell death in cultured rat astrocytes. Incubation of astrocytes with graded concentrations of ODN (10-14 to 10-8 M) inhibited 6-OHDA-evoked cell death in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. In addition, ODN prevented the decrease of mitochondrial activity and caspase-3 activation induced by 6-OHDA. 6-OHDA-treated cells also exhibited enhanced levels of ROS associated with a generation of H2O2 and O2°-, and a reduction of both superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities. Co-treatment of astrocytes with low concentrations of ODN dose-dependently blocked 6-OHDA-evoked production of ROS and inhibition of antioxidant enzyme activities. Concomitantly, ODN stimulated Mn-SOD, CAT, glutathione peroxidase-1, and sulfiredoxin-1 gene transcription and rescued 6-OHDA-associated reduced expression of endogenous antioxidant enzymes. Taken together, these data indicate that, in rat astrocytes, ODN exerts anti-apoptotic and anti-oxidative activities, and hence prevents 6-OHDA-induced oxidative assault and cell death. ODN is thus a potential candidate to delay neuronal damages in various pathological conditions involving oxidative neurodegeneration.

In the prevention of neurodegeneration associated with aging and neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer&rsquo, s disease, Parkinson&rsquo, s disease), neuronal differentiation is of interest. In this context, neurotrophic factors are a family of peptides capable of promoting the growth, survival, and/or differentiation of both developing and immature neurons. In contrast to these peptidyl compounds, polyphenols are not degraded in the intestinal tract and are able to cross the blood&ndash, brain barrier. Consequently, they could potentially be used as therapeutic agents in neurodegenerative pathologies associated with neuronal loss, thus requiring the stimulation of neurogenesis. We therefore studied the ability to induce neuronal differentiation of two major polyphenols present in the Mediterranean diet: resveratrol (RSV), a major compound found in grapes and red wine, and apigenin (API), present in parsley, rosemary, olive oil, and honey. The effects of these compounds (RSV and API: 6.25&ndash, 50 &micro, M) were studied on murine neuro-2a (N2a) cells after 48 h of treatment without or with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Retinoic acid (RA: 6.25&ndash, M) was used as positive control. Neuronal differentiation was morphologically evaluated through the presence of dendrites and axons. Cell growth was determined by cell counting and cell viability by staining with fluorescein diacetate (FDA). Neuronal differentiation was more efficient in the absence of serum than with 10% FBS or 10% delipidized FBS. At concentrations inducing neuronal differentiation, no or slight cytotoxicity was observed with RSV and API, whereas RA was cytotoxic. Without FBS, RSV and API, as well as RA, trigger the neuronal differentiation of N2a cells via signaling pathways simultaneously involving protein kinase A (PKA)/phospholipase C (PLC)/protein kinase C (PKC) and MEK/ERK. With 10% FBS, RSV and RA induce neuronal differentiation via PLC/PKC and PKA/PLC/PKC, respectively. With 10% FBS, PKA and PLC/PKC as well as MEK/ERK signaling pathways were not activated in API-induced neuronal differentiation. In addition, the differentiating effects of RSV and API were not inhibited by cyclo[DLeu5] OP, an antagonist of octadecaneuropeptide (ODN) which is a neurotrophic factor. Moreover, RSV and API do not stimulate the expression of the diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI), the precursor of ODN. Thus, RSV and API are able to induce neuronal differentiation, ODN and its receptor are not involved in this process, and the activation of the (PLC/PKC) signaling pathway is required, except with apigenin in the presence of 10% FBS. These data show that RSV and API are able to induce neuronal differentiation and therefore mimic neurotrophin activity. Thus, RSV and API could be of interest in regenerative medicine to favor neurogenesis.

International audience; Astroglial cells are important actors in the defense of brain against oxidative stress injuries. Glial cells synthesize and release the octadecaneuropeptide ODN, a diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI)-related peptide, which acts through its metabotropic receptor to protect neurons and astrocytes from oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. The purpose of the present study is to examine the contribution of the endogenous ODN in the protection of astrocytes and neurons from moderate oxidative stress. The administration of H2O2 (50 μM, 6 h) induced a moderate oxidative stress in cultured astrocytes, i.e., an increase in reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde, and carbonyl group levels, but it had no effect on astrocyte death. Mass spectrometry and QPCR analysis revealed that 50 μM H2O2 increased ODN release and DBI mRNA levels. The inhibition of ODN release or pharmacological blockage of the effects of ODN revealed that in these conditions, 50 μM H2O2 induced the death of astrocytes. The transfection of astrocytes with DBI siRNA increased the vulnerability of cells to moderate stress. Finally, the addition of 1 nM ODN to culture media reversed cell death observed in DBI-deficient astrocytes. The treatment of neurons with media from 50 μM H2O2-stressed astrocytes significantly reduced the neuronal death induced by H2O2; this effect is greatly attenuated by the administration of an ODN metabotropic receptor antagonist. Overall, these results indicate that astrocytes produce authentic ODN, notably in a moderate oxidative stress situation, and this glio- and neuro-protective agent may form part of the brain defense mechanisms against oxidative stress injury.

Oxidative stress, associated with various neurodegenerative diseases, induces imbalance in ROS generation, impairs cellular antioxidant defences and finally triggers both neurons and astroglial cell death by apoptosis. Astrocytes specifically synthesize and release endozepines, a family of regulatory peptides, including the octadecaneuropeptide (ODN). We have previously reported that ODN is a potent neuroprotective agent that prevents 6-OHDA-induced apoptotic neuronal death. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the potential glioprotective effect of ODN on 6-OHDA-induced oxidative stress and cell death in cultured rat astrocytes. Incubation of astrocytes with graded concentrations of ODN (10−14 to 10−8 M) inhibited 6-OHDA-evoked cell death in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. In addition, ODN prevented the decrease of mitochondrial activity and caspase-3 activation induced by 6-OHDA. Toxin-treated cells exhibited high level of ROS associated with a generation of H2O2 and O2°-and a reduction of both SOD and catalase activities. Co-treatment of astrocytes with low concentrations of ODN dose dependently blocked 6-OHDA-evoked ROS production and inhibition of antioxidant enzymes activities. Taken together, these data demonstrate that ODN is a potent glioprotective agent that prevents 6-OHDA-induced oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death. ODN is thus a potential candidate to delay neuronal damages in various pathological conditions involving oxidative neurodegeneration.

International audience; The term endozepines designates a family of astroglia-secreted proteins including the diazepambinding inhibitor (DBI) and its processing products, which have been originally isolated and characterized as endogenous ligands of benzodiazepine receptors. It is now clearly established that the octadecaneuropeptide ODN (DBI33-50), acting through the central-type benzodiazepine receptor or a metabotropic receptor, exerts important functions such as proconflict behavior, induction of anxiety, inhibition of pentobarbital-provoked sleep, decrease of water consumption and reduction of food intake. To mediate its effects, ODN regulates both glial cell and neuronal activities by acting on neurosteroid biosynthesis and/or neuropeptide expression. In addition, ODN stimulates astrocyte proliferation and protects both neurons and astrocytes from oxidative stress-induced cell death. The antiapoptotic effect of ODN on neural cells is mediated through activation of the ODN metabotropic receptor positively coupled to PKA, PKC and MAPK/ERK transduction pathways, which ultimately reduces the pro-apoptotic gene Bax and stimulates Bcl-2 expressions, and inhibits intracellular reactive oxygen species accumulation. The imbalance in favor of Bcl2 promotes mitochondria functions and blocks in turn caspases activation while at the same time, ODN also activates the endogenous antioxidant system i.e. glutathione biosynthesis, and expression and activities of antioxidant enzymes. In cultured astrocytes, DBI expression is up-regulated during moderate oxidative stress, and authentic ODN production is increased, suggesting that ODN may act as a paracrine factor protecting neighboring neurons. Taken together, the remarkable effect of ODN on the apoptotic cascade suggests that innovative ODN derivatives could potentially be useful for treatment of cerebral injuries involving oxidative stress and neurodegeneration.

Oxidative stress plays a major role in triggering astroglial cell death in diverse neuropathological conditions such as ischemia and neurodegenerative diseases. Numerous studies indicate that hemoglobin (Hb) is expressed in both resting and reactive glia cells, but nothing is known regarding a possible role of hemoglobin on astroglial cells survival. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the potential glioprotective effect of Hb on hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in cultured rat astrocytes. Our study demonstrates that administration of graded concentrations of Hb (10-12 to 10-6 M) to H2O2-treated astrocytes reduce cell death in a concentration-dependent manner. H2O2 treatment induces the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO), a drop of the mitochondrial membrane potential and a stimulation of caspases-3/7 activity. Exposure of H2O2-treated cells to Hb was accompanied by a marked attenuation of ROS and NO surproduction, reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of caspases-3/7 activity. The protective action of Hb was blocked by the protein kinase A inhibitor H89, the protein kinase C inhibitor chelerythrine and the mitogen-activated protein (MAP)-kinase kinase (MEK) inhibitor U0126. Taken together, these data demonstrate for the first time that Hb is a glioprotective factor that protects astrocytes from apoptosis induced by oxidative stress and suggest that Hb may confer neuroprotection in neurodegenerative diseases. The anti-apoptotic activity of Hb on astrocytes is mediated through the protein kinase A, protein kinase C and MAPK transduction pathways, and can be accounted for by inhibition of oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunctions and caspases activation.

Natural molecules from different origins exhibit high therapeutic potential. Among them, molecules from marine algae are of particular interest. In the present study, we investigated the preventive effect of a protein extract (PE) of Ulva rigida against UVB-induced cellular damages. We demonstrated that a treatment of cortical astrocytes with 50 μg of PE induced a strong glioprotective effect and suppressed harmful effects of UVB radiations, increasing in particular cellular viability. In additional assays, this extract promoted the activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase and inhibited the production of stress markers, such as H 2 O 2 or lipid peroxidation. As expected, proteolytic digestion or heating treatment of algal extract inhibited this preventive effect, arguing for the predominant role of the protein fraction. Thereafter, proteomic investigations allowed to identify several proteins from the extract, among which calmodulin revealed to represent an important contributor to the observed protective activities.

International audience; Oxidative stress, induced by various neurodegenerative diseases, initiates a cascade of events leading to apoptosis, and thus plays a critical role in neuronal injury. In this study, we have investigated the potential neuroprotective effect of the octadecaneuropeptide (ODN) on 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in cerebellar granule neurons (CGN). ODN, which is produced by astrocytes, is an endogenous ligand for both central-type benzodiazepine receptors (CBR) and a metabotropic receptor. Incubation of neurons with subnanomolar concentrations of ODN (10⁻¹⁸ to 10⁻¹² M) inhibited 6-OHDA-evoked cell death in a concentration-dependent manner. The effect of ODN on neuronal survival was abrogated by the metabotropic receptor antagonist, cyclo₁₋₈ [DLeu⁵]OP, but not by a CBR antagonist. ODN stimulated polyphosphoinositide turnover and ERK phosphorylation in CGN. The protective effect of ODN against 6-OHDA toxicity involved the phospholipase C/ERK MAPK transduction cascade. 6-OHDA treatment induced an accumulation of reactive oxygen species, an increase of the expression of the pro-apoptotic gene Bax, a drop of the mitochondrial membrane potential and a stimulation of caspase-3 activity. Exposure of 6-OHDA-treated cells to ODN blocked all the deleterious effects of the toxin. Taken together, these data demonstrate for the first time that ODN is a neuroprotective agent that prevents 6-OHDA-induced oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death.

International audience; Background:The mechanisms involved in septic anorexia are mainly related to the secretion of inflammatory cytokines. The term endozepines designates a family of neuropeptides, including the octadecaneuropeptide (ODN), originally isolated as endogenous ligands of benzodiazepine receptors. Previous data showed that ODN, produced and released by astrocytes, is a potent anorexigenic peptide. We have studied the effect of sepsis by means of a model of cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) on the hypothalamic expression of endozepines (DBI mRNA and protein levels), as well as on the level of neuropeptides controlling energy homeostasis mRNAs: pro-opiomelanocortin, neuropeptide Y, and corticotropin-releasing hormone. In addition, we have investigated the effects of two inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-1β, on DBI mRNA levels in cultured rat astrocytes.Methods:Studies were performed on Sprague-Dawley male rats and on cultures of rat cortical astrocytes. Sepsis was induced using the CLP method. Sham-operated control animals underwent the same procedure, but the cecum was neither ligated nor incised.Results:Sepsis caused by CLP evoked an increase of DBI mRNA levels in ependymal cells bordering the third ventricle and in tanycytes of the median eminence. CLP-induced sepsis was also associated with stimulated ODN-like immunoreactivity (ODN-LI) in the hypothalamus. In addition, TNF-α, but not IL-1β, induced a dose-dependent increase in DBI mRNA in cultured rat astrocytes. An increase in the mRNA encoding the precursor of the anorexigenic peptide α-melanocyte stimulating hormone, the pro-opiomelanocortin, and the corticotropin-releasing hormone was observed in the hypothalamus.Conclusion:These results suggest that during sepsis, hypothalamic mRNA encoding endozepines, anorexigenic peptide as well as stress hormone could play a role in the anorexia/cachexia associated with inflammation due to sepsis and we suggest that this hypothalamic mRNA expression could involve TNF-α.

Oxidative stress, resulting from accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), plays a critical role on astrocyte death associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Astroglial cells produce endozepines, a family of biologically active peptides that have been implicated in cell protection. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the potential protective effect of one of the endozepines, the octadecaneuropeptide ODN, on hydrogen peroxide (H(2) O(2) )-induced oxidative stress and cell death in rat astrocytes. Incubation of cultured astrocytes with graded concentrations of H(2) O(2) for 1 h provoked a dose-dependent reduction of the number of living cells as evaluated by lactate dehydrogenase assay. The cytotoxic effect of H(2) O(2) was associated with morphological modifications that were characteristic of apoptotic cell death. H(2) O(2) -treated cells exhibited high level of ROS associated with a reduction of both superoxide dismutases (SOD) and catalase activities. Pre-treatment of astrocytes with low concentrations of ODN dose-dependently prevented cell death induced by H(2) O(2) . This effect was accompanied by a marked attenuation of ROS accumulation, reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of caspase 3 activity. ODN stimulated SOD and catalase activities in a concentration-dependent manner, and blocked H(2) O(2) -evoked inhibition of SOD and catalase activities. Blockers of SOD and catalase suppressed the effect of ODN on cell survival. Taken together, these data demonstrate for the first time that ODN is a potent protective agent that prevents oxidative stress-induced apoptotic cell death.

Oxidative stress, associated with a variety of disorders including neurodegenerative diseases, results from accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Oxidative stress is not only responsible for neuron apoptosis, but can also provoke astroglial cell death. Numerous studies indicate that pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) promotes neuron survival, but nothing is known regarding the action of PACAP on astroglial cell survival. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the potential glioprotective effect of PACAP on H(2)O(2)-induced astrocyte death. Pre-treatment of cultured rat astrocytes with nanomolar concentrations of PACAP prevented cell death provoked by H(2)O(2) (300 μM), whereas vasoactive intestinal polypeptide was devoid of protective activity. The effect of PACAP on astroglial cell survival was abolished by the type 1 PACAP receptor antagonist, PACAP6-38. The protective action of PACAP was blocked by the protein kinase A inhibitor H89, the protein kinase C inhibitor chelerythrine and the mitogen-activated protein (MAP)-kinase kinase (MEK) inhibitor U0126. PACAP stimulated glutathione formation, and blocked H(2)O(2)-evoked ROS accumulation and glutathione content reduction. In addition, PACAP prevented the decrease of mitochondrial activity and caspase 3 activation induced by H(2)O(2). Taken together, these data indicate for the first time that PACAP, acting through type 1 PACAP receptor, exerts a potent protective effect against oxidative stress-induced astrocyte death. The anti-apoptotic activity of PACAP on astrocytes is mediated through the protein kinase A, protein kinase C and MAPK transduction pathways, and can be accounted for by inhibition of ROS-induced mitochondrial dysfunctions and caspase 3 activation.

Apoptosis is a regulated process leading to cell death, which is implicated both in normal development and in various pathologies including heart failure, stroke and neurodegenerative diseases. Caspase-3, a key enzyme of the apoptotic pathway, is considered as a major target for the treatment of abnormal cell death. Many factors that inhibit cell death have been identified, but the mechanisms involved are not always fully understood. Pituitary adenylate cylase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) has been shown to exert neuroprotective activities during development. PACAP also inhibits apoptosis in cardiomyopathy, decreases glutamate-induced retinal injury, reduces neuronal loss in case of stroke, and prevents ethanol neurotoxicity. Most of the antiapoptotic effects of PACAP are mediated through the PAC1 receptor. This receptor activates a transduction cascade of second messengers to stimulate Bcl-2 expression which inhibits cytochrome c release and blocks in turn caspase activation. PACAP also acts through the PI3K/Akt pathway and inhibits the expression of proapoptotic factors such as c-Jun or Bax. The remarkable effect of PACAP on the apoptotic cascade suggests that innovative PACAP derivatives could potentially be useful for treatment of post-traumatic lesions, chronic neurodegenerative diseases, cardiac ischemia and/or retinopathy.

International audience; Astroglial cells synthesize and release endozepines, a family of neuropeptides derived from diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI). The authors have recently shown that beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta) stimulates DBI gene expression and endozepine release. The purpose of this study was to determine the mechanism of action of Abeta in cultured rat astrocytes. Abeta(25-35) and the N-formyl peptide receptor (FPR) agonist N-formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLF) increased the secretion of endozepines in a dose-dependent manner with EC(50) value of approximately 2 microM. The stimulatory effects of Abeta(25-35) and the FPR agonists fMLF and N-formyl-Met-Met-Met (fMMM) on endozepine release were abrogated by the FPR antagonist N-t-Boc-Phe-Leu-Phe-Leu-Phe. In contrast, Abeta(25-35) increased DBI mRNA expression through a FPR-independent mechanism. Abeta(25-35) induced a transient stimulation of cAMP formation and a sustained activation of polyphosphoinositide turnover. The stimulatory effect of Abeta(25-35) on endozepine release was blocked by the adenylyl cyclase inhibitor somatostatin, the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor H89, the phospholipase C inhibitor U73122, the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor chelerythrine and the ATP binding cassette transporter blocker glyburide. Taken together, these data demonstrate for the first time that Abeta(25-35) stimulates endozepine release from rat astrocytes through a FPR receptor positively coupled to PKA and PKC.

International audience; Astroglial cells possess an array of cellular defense mechanisms, including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase antioxidant enzymes, to prevent damages caused by oxidative stress. Nevertheless, astroglial cell viability and functionality can be affected by significant oxidative stress. We have previously shown that pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a potent glioprotective agent that prevents hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 )-induced apoptosis in cultured astrocytes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential protective effect of PACAP against oxidative-generated alteration of astrocytic antioxidant systems. Incubation of cells with subnanomolar concentrations of PACAP inhibited H2 O2 -evoked reactive oxygen species accumulation, mitochondrial respiratory burst, and caspase-3 mRNA level increase. PACAP also stimulated SOD and catalase activities in a concentration-dependent manner, and counteracted the inhibitory effect of H2 O2 on the activity of these two antioxidant enzymes. The protective action of PACAP against H2 O2 -evoked inhibition of antioxidant systems in astrocytes was protein kinase A, PKC, and MAP-kinase dependent. In the presence of H2 O2 , the SOD blocker NaCN and the catalase inhibitor 3-aminotriazole, both suppressed the protective effects of PACAP on SOD and catalase activities, mitochondrial function, and cell survival. Taken together, these results indicate that the anti-apoptotic effect of PACAP on astroglial cells can account for the activation of endogenous antioxidant enzymes and reduction in respiration rate, thus preserving mitochondrial integrity and preventing caspase-3 expression provoked by oxidative stress. Considering its powerful anti-apoptotic and anti-oxidative properties, the PACAPergic signaling system should thus be considered for the development of new therapeutical approaches to cure various pathologies involving oxidative neurodegeneration. We propose the following cascade for the glioprotective action of Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) against H2 O2 -induced astrocyte damages and cell apoptosis in cultured rat astrocytes. PACAP, through activation of its receptor, PAC1-R, and the protein kinase A (PKA), protein kinase C (PKC), and MAP-kinases signaling pathways, prevents accumulation of ROS and inhibition of SOD and catalase activities. This allows the preservation of mitochondrial membrane integrity and the reduction in caspase-3 activation induced by H2 O2 . These data may lead to the development of new strategies for cerebral injury treatment. Cat, catalase; Cyt. C, cytochrome C; SOD, superoxide dismutase.

International audience; Oxidative stress, associated with a variety of disorders including neurodegenerative diseases, is a major cause of cellular dysfunction and biomolecule damages which play a crucial role in neuronal apoptosis. Astrocytes specifically synthesize and release endozepines, a family of regulatory peptides, including the octadecaneuropeptide ODN. We have recently shown that ODN is a potent glioprotective agent that prevents hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the potential protective effect of ODN on oxidative-generated damage of biomolecules in cultured rat astrocytes. Incubation of cells with subnanomolar concentrations of ODN (0.1fM-0.1nM) inhibited H2O2-evoked reactive oxygen species accumulation and cell death in a concentration-dependent manner. Exposure of H2O2-treated cells to 0.1nM ODN inhibited superoxide anion generation and blocked oxidative damage of cell molecules caused by H2O2i.e. formation and accumulation of lipid oxidation products, malondialdehydes and conjugated dienes, and protein carbonyl compounds. Taken together, these data demonstrate for the first time that ODN prevents oxidative stress-induced alteration of cellular constituents. ODN is thus a potential candidate to reduce neuronal damage in various pathological conditions involving oxidative neurodegeneration.

During cerebellar development, granule cell precursors are produced from a secondary germinative zone forming the external granule cell layer (EGL). Immature granule neurons from the inner part of the EGL then start a tangential migration followed by a centripetal inward radial migration across the molecular and Purkinje cell layers to reach their final destination at the bottom of the forming internal granule cell layer (IGL). This complex migratory process is highly regulated and takes about 2 days in rodents and it is essential for the proper formation of the cortical layers forming the mature cerebellum. In the IGL, granule cells differentiate to establish functional excitatory synapses with GABAergic neurons including Purkinje, basket, stellate and Golgi cells, or die. Some neurotrophins and neurotransmitters have been shown to be involved in the control of cerebellar granule cell survival, migration and differentiation. Initially, when I started my carrier as a researcher, we used to claim that very few neuropeptides were produced in the cerebellum. Nevertheless, we now know that this was wrong as we have recently identified by mass spectrometry over 70 peptides expressed in the cerebellum during development. Over the years, the involvement of some of these peptides such as somatostatin, PACAP or ODN, has been established in the control of cerebellar granule cell survival, migration and differentiation as will illustrate my presentation.

Accumulation of β-amyloid peptide (Aβ), which is a landmark of Alzheimer's disease, may alter astrocyte functions before any visible symptoms of the disease occur. Here, we examined the effects of Aβ on biosynthesis and release of diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI), a polypeptide primarily expressed by astroglial cells in the CNS. Quantitative RT–PCR and specific radioimmunoassay demonstrated that aggregated Aβ25−35, at concentrations up to 10−4 m, induced a dose-dependent increase in DBI mRNA expression and DBI-related peptide release from cultured rat astrocytes. These effects were totally suppressed when aggregation of Aβ25−35 was prevented by Congo red. Measurement of the number of living cells revealed that Aβ25−35 induced a trophic rather than a toxic effect on astrocytes. Administration of cycloheximide blocked Aβ25−35-induced increase of DBI gene expression and endozepine accumulation in astrocytes, indicating that protein synthesis is required for DBI gene expression. Altogether, the present data suggest that Aβ-induced activation of endozepine biosynthesis and release may contribute to astrocyte proliferation associated with Alzheimer's disease.

Endozepines, a family of regulatory peptides related to diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI), are synthesized and released by astroglial cells. Because rat astrocytes express various subtypes of somatostatin receptors (sst), we have investigated the effect of somatostatin on DBI mRNA level and endozepine secretion in rat astrocytes in secondary culture. Somatostatin reduced in a concentration-dependent manner the level of DBI mRNA in cultured astrocytes. This inhibitory effect was mimicked by the selective sst4 receptor agonist L803-087 but not by the selective sst1, sst2 and sst3 receptor agonists L779-591, L779-976 and L797-778, respectively. Somatostatin was unable to further reduce DBI mRNA level in the presence of the MEK inhibitor U0126. Somatostatin and the sst1, sst2 and sst4 receptor agonists induced a concentration-dependent inhibition of endozepine release. Somatostatin and the sst1, sst2 and sst4 receptor agonists also inhibited cAMP formation dose-dependently. In addition, somatostatin reduced forskolin-induced endozepine release. H89 mimicked the inhibitory effect of somatostatin on endozepine secretion. In contrast the PLC inhibitor U73122, the PKC activator PMA and the PKC inhibitor calphostin C had no effect on somatostatin-induced inhibition of endozepine release. The present data demonstrate that somatostatin reduces DBI mRNA level mainly through activation of sst4 receptors negatively coupled to the MAPK pathway, and inhibits endozepine release through activation of sst1, sst2 and sst4 receptors negatively coupled to the adenylyl cyclase/PKA pathway.

International audience; Astroglial cells possess an array of cellular defense systems, including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase antioxidant enzymes, to prevent damage caused by oxidative stress on the central nervous system. Astrocytes specifically synthesize and release endozepines, a family of regulatory peptides including the octadecaneuropeptide (ODN). ODN is the ligand of both central-type benzodiazepine receptors (CBR), and an adenylyl cyclase- and phospholipase C-coupled receptor. We have recently shown that ODN is a potent protective agent that prevents hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2))-induced inhibition of SOD and catalase activities and stimulation of cell apoptosis in astrocytes. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the type of receptor involved in ODN-induced inhibition of SOD and catalase in cultured rat astrocytes. We found that ODN induced a rapid stimulation of SOD and catalase gene transcription in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, 0.1 nM ODN blocked H(2)O(2)-evoked reduction of both mRNA levels and activities of SOD and catalase. Furthermore, the inhibitory actions of ODN on the deleterious effects of H(2)O(2) on SOD and catalase were abrogated by the metabotropic ODN receptor antagonist cyclo(1-8)[Dleu(5)]OP, but not by the CBR antagonist flumazenil. Finally, the protective action of ODN against H(2)O(2)-evoked inhibition of endogenous antioxidant systems in astrocytes was protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent, but protein kinase C-independent. Taken together, these data demonstrate for the first time that ODN, acting through its metabotropic receptor coupled to the PKA pathway, prevents oxidative stress-induced alteration of antioxidant enzyme expression and activities. The peptide ODN is thus a potential candidate for the development of specific agonists that would selectively mimic its protective activity.

International audience; Oxidative stress, resulting from accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), plays a critical role on astrocyte death associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Astroglial cells produce endozepines, a family of biologically active peptides that have been implicated in cell protection. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the potential protective effect of one of the endozepines, the octadecaneuropeptide ODN, on hydrogen peroxide (H(2) O(2) )-induced oxidative stress and cell death in rat astrocytes. Incubation of cultured astrocytes with graded concentrations of H(2) O(2) for 1 h provoked a dose-dependent reduction of the number of living cells as evaluated by lactate dehydrogenase assay. The cytotoxic effect of H(2) O(2) was associated with morphological modifications that were characteristic of apoptotic cell death. H(2) O(2) -treated cells exhibited high level of ROS associated with a reduction of both superoxide dismutases (SOD) and catalase activities. Pre-treatment of astrocytes with low concentrations of ODN dose-dependently prevented cell death induced by H(2) O(2) . This effect was accompanied by a marked attenuation of ROS accumulation, reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of caspase 3 activity. ODN stimulated SOD and catalase activities in a concentration-dependent manner, and blocked H(2) O(2) -evoked inhibition of SOD and catalase activities. Blockers of SOD and catalase suppressed the effect of ODN on cell survival. Taken together, these data demonstrate for the first time that ODN is a potent protective agent that prevents oxidative stress-induced apoptotic cell death.

International audience; Astrocytes represent at least 50% of the volume of the human brain. Besides their roles in various supportive functions, astrocytes are involved in the regulation of stem cell proliferation, synaptic plasticity and neuroprotection. Astrocytes also influence neuronal physiology by responding to neurotransmitters and neuropeptides and by releasing regulatory factors termed gliotransmitters. In particular, astrocytes express the PACAP-specific receptor PAC1-R and the PACAP/VIP mutual receptors VPAC1-R and VPAC2-R during development and/or in the adult. There is now clear evidence that PACAP and VIP modulate a number of astrocyte activities such as proliferation, plasticity, glycogen production, and biosynthesis of neurotrophic factors and gliotransmitters.

International audience; Astrocytes synthesize and release endozepines, a family of neuropeptides related to diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI). Astroglial cells also express the receptors of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). In the present article, we show that PACAP dose dependently increases DBI gene expression and stimulates endozepine release through activation of PAC1-R. PACAP increases cAMP formation, enhances polyphosphoinositide turnover, and evokes calcium mobilization from intracellular Ca2+ pools. The effect of PACAP on endozepine release is mediated through the adenylyl cyclase/PKA pathway while the downregulation of astrocyte response to PACAP can be ascribed to activation of the PLC/PKC pathway.

International audience; Astroglial cells synthesize and release endozepines, neuropeptides that are related to the octadecaneuropeptide ODN. Glial cells also express PACAP/VIP receptors. We have investigated the possible effect of PACAP on the release of ODN-like immunoreactivity (ODN-LI) by cultured rat astrocytes. Administration of PACAP27 and PACAP38 induced a concentration-dependent increase in secretion of ODN-LI whereas VIP was approximately 1000-fold less potent. The maximum effect of PACAP38 occurred after 5 min, then gradually declined during the next 10 min. The stimulatory effects of PACAP and VIP were abrogated by the PACAP antagonist PACAP6-38. PACAP38 stimulated cAMP formation, activated polyphosphoinositide turnover, and provoked calcium mobilization from IP3-sensitive pools. The PKA inhibitor H89 suppressed PACAP-induced secretion of ODN-LI, whereas PLC inhibitor U73122 and the PKC inhibitor chelerythrine had no effect. In contrast, U73122 restored the stimulatory action of PACAP on ODN-LI release and cAMP formation during prolonged (15 min) incubation with the peptide, and this effect was prevented by PMA. The present results demonstrate that PACAP stimulates endozepine release through activation of PAC1 receptors coupled to the AC/PKA pathway. Our data also show that activation of the PLC/PKC pathway down-regulates the effect of PACAP on endozepine release.

International audience; Astrocytes synthesize a series of regulatory peptides called endozepines, which act as endogenous ligands of benzodiazepine receptors. We have recently shown that one of these endozepines, the triakontatetraneuropeptide TTN, stimulates DNA synthesis in astroglial cells. The purpose of the present study was to determine the mechanism of action of TTN on cultured rat astrocytes. Binding of the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor ligand [3H]Ro5-4864 to intact astrocytes was displaced by TTN, whereas its C-terminal fragment (TTN[17-34], the octadecaneuropeptide ODN) did not compete for [3H]Ro5-4864 binding. Microfluorimetric measurement of cytosolic calcium concentrations ([Ca2+]i) with the fluorescent probe indo-1 showed that TTN (10(-10) to 10(-6) M) provokes a concentration-dependent increase in [Ca2+]i in cultured astrocytes. Simultaneous administration of TTN (10(-8) M) and Ro5-4864 (10(-5) M) induced an increase in [Ca2+]i similar to that obtained with Ro5-4864 alone. In contrast, the effects of TTN (10(-8) M) and ODN (10(-8) M) on [Ca2+]i were strictly additive. Chelation of extracellular Ca2+ by EGTA (6 mM) or blockage of Ca2+ channels with Ni2+ (2 mM) abrogated the stimulatory effect of TTN. The calcium influx evoked by TTN (10(-7) M) or by Ro5-4864 (10(-5) M) was not affected by the N- and T-type calcium channel blockers omega-conotoxin (10(-6) M) and mibefradil (10(-6) M), but was significantly reduced by the L-type calcium channel blocker nifedipine (10(-7) M). Patch-clamp studies showed that, at negative potentials, TTN (10(-7) M) induced a sustained depolarization. Reduction of the chloride concentration in the extracellular solution shifted the reversal potential from 0 mV to a positive potential. These data show that TTN, acting through peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptors, provokes chloride efflux, which in turn induces calcium influx via L-type calcium channels in rat astrocytes.

Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy can cause serious birth defects leading to fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). FAS is characterized among others by irreversible craniofacial abnormalities and atrophy of the developing brain, and leads to persistent functional deficits at adulthood. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) exerts neurotrophic and neuroprotective properties in several cellular and animal models. As PACAP and its receptors are already present in the developing brain it suggests that this peptide could be protective in a model of prenatal ethanol exposure. Thus, the first part of this work consisted in evaluating the protective effect of endogenous and exogenous PACAP in a FAS model. Animal monitoring indicated that PACAP injections significantly reduced mortality and abortion rate in alcoholic pregnant mice. Morphological evaluation showed that embryos exposed in utero to daily ethanol injections had reduced body and brain size, and that this effect was partially blocked by intrauterine injections of PACAP. In the cerebral cortex, ethanol decreased the number of neurons, of activated glial cells and of disorganized blood vessels. This implies a very strong decrease in the expression of trophic factors, an increase in the level of oxygen species level and an activation of key apoptotic factors. Co-treatment of animals exposed to alcohol with PACAP partially reduced the atrophy of E18 embryos. While PACAP only reduced the thinning of the brain cortical layers, it blocked glial reactivity and protected micro-vessels disorganization induced by ethanol. This may come from the ability of PACAP to promote the expression of neurotrophic factors such as GDNF, FGF or VEGFa, to stop the oxidation of cellular constituents and to block the apoptotic cascade. We have also observed that ethanol very strongly repressed the expression of the PACAPergic system during embryonic development. Our hypothesis is that ethanol acts through activation of transcription factors such as Sp1. This strong decrease in the expression of PACAP, VIP and their 3 receptors could also explain part of the toxic effects of ethanol since brains from PACAP KO animals are less resistant than those from wild type animals. In addition, the injection of PACAP to alcoholic animals restored the expression of all the transcripts of the PACAPergic system excepted the one of VPAC1. These results probably explain the powerful antioxidant and antiapoptotic action of PACAP and its lack of effect on the inflammatory response. The second part of my work investigated the beneficial effects at adulthood of these PACAP treatments in our FAS model. Results show that brain cells from P30 animals exposed to ethanol and treated with PACAP during the embryonic period exhibit resistance to further stress compared to cells from animals only exposed to alcohol. This is accompanied by an inhibition of the high levels of oxidative stress found in the brains of animals exposed in utero to ethanol. At adulthood, these mice having suffered from prenatal ethanol exposure appear anxious and exhibit locomotor disorders which are significantly reduced in PACAP co-treated animals. Altogether, these data show that PACAP could be a biomarker for the detection of children with FAS and/or a powerful therapeutic agent to limit victims of prenatal ethanol exposure further developmental brain alterations, as well as of the secondary lesions observed in case of a new stress of the neurons at adulthood., L’exposition à l’alcool pendant la vie embryonnaire peut provoquer un retard de croissance, des malformations congénitales, une dysmorphie crânio-faciale et/ou des lésions cérébrales, qui se traduisent à l’âge adulte par des déficits cognitifs et comportementaux. Ces déficiences irréversibles causées par une consommation excessive d’alcool pendant la grossesse conduisent à ce que l’on appelle communément le syndrome d’alcoolisation fœtale ou SAF. Le pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), est un neuropeptide découvert initialement pour sa capacité à stimuler la formation d’adénosine monophosphate cyclique (AMPc) dans des cellules hypophysaires de rat en culture. Impliqué dans la régulation de nombreux processus physiologiques, ce neuropeptide exerce son action via l'activation de trois récepteurs couplés aux protéines G dénommés respectivement PAC1, VPAC1 et VPAC2. Le PACAP est doté de multiples actions physiologiques aussi bien sur le système nerveux central que sur les systèmes respiratoire, cardiovasculaire, digestif, immunitaire, reproducteur, etc. Le PACAP est principalement connu pour ses effets prodifférenciateurs et anti-apoptotiques sur divers types cellulaires de même que dans plusieurs modèles in vitro et in vivo. Ce peptide est également capable de traverser la barrière hématoencéphalique (BHE) pour ensuite aller au niveau du cerveau exercer ses propriétés neurotrophiques et neuroprotectrices permettant le contrôle de la prolifération, de la différenciation, de la migration et de la survie des cellules nerveuses. Le PACAP agit en exerçant, entre autres, une action anti-oxydante, anti-inflammatoire et anti-apoptotique. Ce peptide apparaît donc comme un candidat prometteur pour le traitement de diverses atteintes cérébrales multifactorielles telles qu’une exposition prénatale à l’alcool. Néanmoins, la capacité du PACAP à enrayer les dommages provoqués par une exposition in utero à l’éthanol sur le développement cérébral n’avait jamais été investiguée auparavant. La première partie de mon travail a consisté à évaluer l’effet protecteur du PACAP endogène et exogène dans un modèle de SAF. Pour cela, un modèle murin de SAF a été développé chez la souris gestante qui a reçu une injection quotidienne d’éthanol en intrapéritonéal (1,5 g/kg) pour exposer les fœtus à l’alcool du jour embryonnaire 7 (E7) au jour E18. En parallèle de cela, certains animaux ont aussi reçu des administrations intra-utérines quotidiennes de PACAP (5 µg/10 µl) de E9 à E18. Un suivi des animaux indique que les injections de PACAP réduit fortement la mortalité et le taux d’avortement chez les animaux alcoolisés. Une évaluation morphologique montre que les embryons exposés in utero à l’éthanol présentent une taille corporelle et cérébrale réduite et que cet effet est partiellement bloqué par des injections intra-utérines de PACAP. Au niveau cellulaire, on constate que l’éthanol diminue le nombre de neurones dans les couches corticales, rend les cellules gliales réactives et désorganise la structuration des vaisseaux. Ceci implique une diminution très forte de l’expression de facteurs trophiques comme le GDNF, le TGF, le VEGFa ou l’IGF, une forte augmentation du niveau d’espèces réactives de l’oxygène et des marqueurs de stress oxydatif et une activation de facteurs clés de l’apoptose comme la caspase-3. Le co-traitement des animaux exposés à l’alcool avec du PACAP réduit partiellement l’atrophie des embryons à E18. Si le PACAP n’a qu’un effet partiel sur la diminution de l’épaisseur des couches corticales au niveau du cerveau, il réduit la réactivité gliale et protège les microvaisseaux de la désorganisation des micovaisseaux induites par une exposition à l’éthanol in utero.

Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by oxidative stress associated with mitochondrial damages leading to neuronal cell death. To mitigate these damages and promote neuronal cytoprotection and neurogenesis, endogenous (Neuropeptide: octadecaneuropeptide (ODN)) or exogenous (Polyphenols: resveratrol (RSV) and apigenin (API)) natural neurotrophic factors could be used as therapeutic agents to promote neuronal differentiation of immature and pluripotent stem cells. ODN is a peptide produced by astrocytes and known as a powerful neuroprotective agent. It is therefore of interest of studying its effects on the mobilization of calcium, its ability to protect neuronal cells against apoptosis death caused by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and evaluate its ability to stimulate neurogenesis by promoting neuronal differentiation. The effects of polyphenols (RSV, API), major compounds of the Mediterranean diet, on neurogenesis were also evaluated.The cytoprotective and/or differentiating properties of ODN (10-16 -10-8 M) and polyphenols (RSV: 6.25 -50 μM, API: 6.25 -50 μM) were mainly studied on murine N2a neuroblastoma cells but also on other murine (BV-2, C6) and human (SK-N-BE, CCF-STTG1) nerve lines. Cytoprotection was measured by various viability tests (FDA, MTT, DiOC6(3), propidium iodide). Differentiation was morphologically evaluated by the presence of neurites (axons and dendrites) and visualized by different microscopical techniques. Retinoic acid (RA: 6.25-50 μM) was used as a positive inductor of differentiation. The signaling pathways involved in neuronal differentiation have been characterized. We also studied the effect of ODN (10-14 M, 48 h) on the morphology, topography and activity of mitochondria and peroxisome during differentiation. These two organelles are involved in the metabolism of lipids (fatty acids, cholesterol).The results obtained show that ODN is able to promote the survival of N2a cells cultured under the conditions of acute oxidative stress induced by H2O2. In addition, ODN as well as polyphenols (RSV and API), which lack intrinsic cytotoxic effects, stimulate neurite outgrowth, indicating that they exert pro-differentiating neurotrophic effects. This effect of ODN involves activation of its metabotropic receptor associated with intracellular transduction pathways PKA, PKC and MAPK / ERKs. In addition, ODN stimulates the biogenesis of mitochondria and peroxisomes, essential organelles in axonal activity (axonal transport and renewal). The study of signaling pathways demonstrate that the trophic effects of RSV and API involve the activation of PKC, PKA and MAPK / ERK transduction pathways.Based on these results, the ODN release could be an endogenous protective mechanism in response to oxidative attacks and process of neurodegeneration, preventing cell death and promoting neuronal cell differentiation. Our work also highlights for the first time that polyphenols, in addition to their antioxidant activity, stimulate the formation, maturation and elongation of neurites of undifferentiated N2a cells. All of this work indicates that ODN neuropeptide and polyphenols (RSV and API) are potent neurotrophic agents. These molecules and/or their synthetic analogues may have pharmacological interest for treating neurodegenerative diseases by promoting neuroprotection, neuro-repair and neurogenesis., Les maladies neurodégénératives sont caractérisées par un stress oxydatif associé à des dommages mitochondriaux aboutissant à la mort des cellules neuronales. Pour atténuer ces dommages et favoriser la cytoprotection neuronale ainsi que la neurogenèse, des facteurs neurotrophiques naturels de type endogènes (Neuropeptide : octadécaneuropeptide (ODN)) ou exogènes (Polyphénols : resvératrol (RSV) et apigénine (API)) pourraient être utilisés comme agents thérapeutiques permettant de favoriser la différenciation neuronale des cellules souches immatures et pluripotentes. L’ODN est un peptide produit par les astrocytes et connu comme agent neuroprotecteur puissant d’où l’intérêt d’étudier ses effets sur la mobilisation du calcium, sa capacité à protéger les cellules neuronales contre la mort par apoptose générée par le peroxyde d’hydrogène (H2O2) et d’évaluer son pouvoir à stimuler la neurogenèse en favorisant la différenciation neuronale. Les effets des polyphénols (RSV, API), composés majeurs du régime méditerranéen, sur la neurogenèse ont été également évalués.Les propriétés cytoprotectrices et/ou différenciatrices de l’ODN (10-16 -10-8 M) et des polyphénols (RSV : 6.25 -50 µM ; API : 6.25 -50 µM) ont été essentiellement étudiées sur des cellules de neuroblastomes murins N2a mais aussi sur d’autres lignées nerveuses murines (BV-2, C6) et humaines (SK-N-BE ; CCF-STTG1). La cytoprotection a été mesurée par différents tests de viabilité (FDA, MTT, DiOC6(3), iodure de propidium). La différenciation a été évaluée morphologiquement par la présence de neurites (axones et dendrites) visualisés grâce à différentes techniques de microscopie. L’acide rétinoïque (AR : 6.25 -50 µM) a été utilisé comme contrôle positif d’induction de différenciation. Les voies de signalisation impliquées dans la différenciation neuronale ont été caractérisées. Nous avons aussi étudié l’effet de l’ODN (10-14 M, 48 h) sur la morphologie, la topographie et l’activité des mitochondries et des peroxysomes au cours de la différenciation. Ces deux organites sont impliqués dans le métabolisme des lipides (acides gras, cholestérol).Les résultats obtenus montrent que l’ODN est capable de promouvoir la survie des cellules N2a cultivées en condition de stress oxydatif aigue induit par le H2O2. De plus, l’ODN ainsi que les polyphénols RSV et l’API, qui sont dépourvus d’effet cytotoxique intrinsèque stimulent la croissance des neurites indiquant qu’ils exercent des effets neurotrophiques pro-différenciateurs. Cet effet de l’ODN met en jeu l’activation de son récepteur métabotropique associé aux voies de transduction intracellulaire PKA, PKC ainsi que MAPK / ERKs. De plus, l’ODN stimule la biogenèse des mitochondries et des peroxysomes, organites essentiels dans l’activité axonale (transport axonal et renouvellement). L’étude des voies de signalisation démontre que les effets trophiques du RSV et API mettent en jeu l’activation des voies de transduction de la PKC, PKA ainsi que celle des MAPK / ERKs.Sur la base de ces résultats, la libération d’ODN pourrait être un mécanisme endogène de protection en réponse aux attaques oxydatives et au processus de neurodégénérescence, empêchant la mort cellulaire et favorisant la différenciation des cellules neuronales. Nos travaux mettent aussi en évidence pour la première fois que les polyphénols en plus de leur action antioxydante stimulent la formation, la maturation et l’élongation des neurites des cellules N2a non différenciées. L’ensemble de ces travaux indique que le neuropeptide ODN et les polyphénols RSV et API sont de puissants agents neurotrophiques. Ces molécules présentent donc un intérêt pharmacologique en vue de leur utilisation et/ou de leurs analogues synthétiques pour traiter des maladies neurodégénératives en favorisant la neuroprotection, la neuro-réparation et la neurogenèse.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a progressive loss of loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Different mechanisms are associated with the neuropathogenesis of PD including dysfunction of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, oxidative stress, apoptosis and neuroinflammatory processes. Octadecaneuropeptide (ODN) is a diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI)-derived peptide, expressed by astrocytes, which protects neurons against oxidative cell damages and apoptosis in an in vitro model of PD. Nevertheless, its protective action in vivo has never been investigated. Therefore, the aim of the project of this thesis was to investigate whether intracerebroventricular (i.c.v) injection of ODN could prevent DA neuron degeneration in a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced mouse model of PD, and to explore the vulnerability of ODN precursor knockout (DBI KO) mice to MPTP-induced neurotoxicity. The results show that a single i.c.v injection of 10 ng/μl ODN, 1 h after the last systemic administration of MPTP, prevents the reduction of the number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cell bodies and fibers in the SNpc and striatum, respectively. Immunofluorescence imaging, Western blot analysis and Q-PCR studies revealed that ODN totally abolished MPTP-induced decrease of TH positive cells, mRNA expression and protein levels. This neuroprotective effect of ODN is accompanied by a reduction in the number of reactive astrocytes, an inhibition of the expression of pro-inflammatory genes such as interleukins (IL) IL-1β and IL-6, and a decrease of tumor necrosis factor -α. In addition, ODN blocks the inhibition of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 gene and the stimulation of Bax and caspase-3 expression induced by MPTP in the SNpc and striatum. ODN also reduces the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid oxidation products in DA neurons. Furthermore, DBI-/- mice exhibited more vulnerability to MPTP than wild-type animals (DBI+/+). Thus, ODN KO mice are more sensitive to MPTP-induced inflammatory and oxidative brain damages, suggesting that the endogenous OD may also be neuroprotective. These results indicate that, based on its anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effect, the gliopeptide ODN could lead to the development of effective therapeutic agents for the treatment of cerebral injuries involving oxidative neurodegeneration.; La maladie de Parkinson (MP) est un trouble neurodégénératif caractérisé par une perte progressive de neurones dopaminergiques (DA) de la substance noire pars compacta (SNpc). Différents mécanismes sont associés à la neuropathogénèse de la MP et en particulier le dysfonctionnement de la chaîne respiratoire mitochondriale, le stress oxydatif, l’apoptose et les processus neuro-inflammatoires. L'octadécaneuropeptide (ODN) est un peptide dérivé du diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI) exprimé par les cellules astrogliales, qui exerce une action neuroprotectrice dans un modèle cellulaire in vitro de la MP. A ce jour, aucune étude in vivo n’a été réalisée, afin de déterminer si les données obtenues sur les modèles cellulaires in vitro peuvent être transposées in vivo. Le projet de cette thèse consiste ainsi à mettre en évidence l’action protectrice de l’ODN sur la survie des neurones DA de la SNpc dans un modèle murin de la MP et à rechercher les conséquences de l’invalidation du gène du précurseur de l’ODN (DBI) sur la vulnérabilité des neurones DA. Les résultats obtenus montrent qu’une seule injection intra-cérébroventriculaire d’une faible quantité d’ODN (10 ng), 1 h après la dernière administration systémique de 1-méthyl-4-phényl-1,2,3,6-tétrahydropyridine (MPTP) prévient significativement la perte des neurones DA dans la substance noire et la dégénérescence de leurs prolongements nerveux vers le striatum comme mesuré par des marquages et des mesures d’expression de la tyrosine hydroxylase. Cet effet neuroprotecteur de l’ODN est accompagné par une réduction du nombre d’astrocytes réactifs, une forte inhibition de l'expression de gènes pro-inflammatoires tels que les interleukines (IL) IL-1β et IL-6, et tumor necrosis factor-α. De plus, l'ODN bloque l'inhibition du gène anti-apoptotique Bcl-2 et la stimulation des gènes pro-apoptotiques Bax et caspase-3, induite par le MPTP dans la SNpc et le striatum. L'ODN réduit également l’accumulation d'espèces réactives de l'oxygène (ROS) et de produits d'oxydation lipidique dans les neurones DA. Par ailleurs, les souris knock-out DBI (DBI-/-) sont plus vulnérables que les animaux sauvages (DBI+/+) vis-à-vis de la neurotoxicité du MPTP. L’absence de production d’ODN endogène, chez les souris DBI-/- parkinsoniennes, augmente les dommages cellulaires induits par le MPTP, la réactivité gliale, les taux de ROS, l’expression de cytokines pro-inflammatoires et l'activité de la caspase-3 dans la région nigro-striée. L’ensemble de ces résultats montre que le gliopeptide ODN exerce un puissant effet neuroprotecteur contre la dégénérescence des neurones DA de la SNpc induite par le MPTP, chez la souris. Cette action protectrice met en jeu des mécanismes impliquant l’inhibition des processus neuro-inflammatoires, oxydatifs et apoptotiques. D’autre part, la déficience en ODN potentialise les effets délétères du MPTP, suggérant que ce peptide joue un rôle clé lors de la réponse à un stress cellulaire.