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Observation of high energy and very high emission from Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs) is crucial to study the gigantic explosion and the underline processes. With a large field-of-view and almost full duty cycle, the Water Cherenkov Detector Array (WCDA), a sub-array of the Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory (LHAASO), is appropriate to monitor the very high energy emission from unpredictable transients such as GRBs. Nevertheless, the main issue for an extensive air shower array is the high energy threshold which limits the horizon of the detector. To address this issue a new trigger method is developed in this article to lower the energy threshold of WCDA for GRB observation. The proposed method significantly improves the detection efficiency of WCDA for gamma-rays around the GRB direction at 10-300 GeV. The sensitivity of the WCDA for GRB detection with the new trigger method is estimated. The achieved sensitivity of the quarter WCDA array above 10 GeV is comparable with that of Fermi-LAT. The data analysis process and corresponding fluence upper limit for GRB 190719C is presented as an example.

The extension of the cosmic-ray spectrum beyond 1 petaelectronvolt (PeV; 1015 electronvolts) indicates the existence of the so-called PeVatrons—cosmic-ray factories that accelerate particles to PeV energies. We need to locate and identify such objects to find the origin of Galactic cosmic rays1. The principal signature of both electron and proton PeVatrons is ultrahigh-energy (exceeding 100 TeV) γ radiation. Evidence of the presence of a proton PeVatron has been found in the Galactic Centre, according to the detection of a hard-spectrum radiation extending to 0.04 PeV (ref. 2). Although γ-rays with energies slightly higher than 0.1 PeV have been reported from a few objects in the Galactic plane3–6, unbiased identification and in-depth exploration of PeVatrons requires detection of γ-rays with energies well above 0.1 PeV. Here we report the detection of more than 530 photons at energies above 100 teraelectronvolts and up to 1.4 PeV from 12 ultrahigh-energy γ-ray sources with a statistical significance greater than seven standard deviations. Despite having several potential counterparts in their proximity, including pulsar wind nebulae, supernova remnants and star-forming regions, the PeVatrons responsible for the ultrahigh-energy γ-rays have not yet been firmly localized and identified (except for the Crab Nebula), leaving open the origin of these extreme accelerators. Observations of γ-rays with energies up to 1.4 PeV find that 12 sources in the Galaxy are PeVatrons, one of which is the Crab Nebula.

The gamma-ray background problem is known to be acute in any low-background underground experiment. The variations of this background depend on many parameters and should be taken into account when interpreting the results of experiments combined under the term “underground physics”. This paper is devoted to studying the long-term variations of the gamma-ray background in an underground laboratory with a scintillation detector based on a CsI crystal. Our studies have revealed a new effect in underground physics—a delayed nonlinear pumping effect for the gamma-ray background in an underground room that can lead to a significant rise of this background at an anomalously low atmospheric pressure.

The ENDA Electron–Neutron Detector Array is under development in Tibet mountains as an integral part of a Large High-Altitude Air-Shower Observatory (LHAASO). A prototype of a single ENDA cluster consisting of 16 electron–neutron detectors has been constructed at the Moscow Institute for Nuclear Research (INR) and is used to study extensive air showers with energies above 1 PeV. A new procedure for data acquisition (DAQ) that relies on a 32-bit analog–digital converter (ADC) is used in these measurements. Calibration with radioactive sources shows that the DAQ procedure correctly selects neutron hits. Extensive air showers are detected in parallel with measuring variations of the thermal-neutron background.

A description is given of the ENDA (electron–neutron detector array) setup launched as part of the international LHAASO project in December 2019 in Tibet at an altitude of 4410 m above sea level. A unique feature of the ENDA is its simultaneous recording of two main components of extensive air showers (hadronic and electronic) over whole array using the same detectors. The main parameters of the array obtained from calculations and measurements are presented.

Interesting results are obtained using a setup with electron-neutron detectors (EN-detectors) developed for the PRISMA (PRImary Spectrum Measuring Array) project to study extensive atmospheric showers. A small installation of four EN-detectors (PRISMA-YBJ) has been in operation for three and a half years on the Earth’s surface in Tibet, 4300 m above sea level, constantly measuring the natural flux of thermal neutrons. Neutrons are produced in soil during (α, n)-reactions with naturally radioactive α-particles, mainly from the decay of radon and daughter heavy nuclides. The neutrons are thermalized in the medium and, once in equilibrium with it, become sensitive to its state. They then can indicate many geophysical processes in the crust, including earthquakes. Results illustrating the sensitivity of EN-detectors to earthquakes are considered.

Hadrons are the “skeleton” of extensive air shower (EAS). They possess favorable information concerning the cosmic ray components and energy. The electron-neutron detector (EN-detector) can detect both electrons and thermal neutrons generated by EAS hadrons in surrounding matter. The electron-neutron detector array (ENDA) was proposed to add into the LHAASO project to improve its capability of EAS hybrid detection. Up to present 64 EN-detectors have been produced and are running in China. In 2018, a cluster (16 EN-detectors) was installed at Yangbajing (YBJ), Tibet. In 2019, another cluster, so called ENDA-16-HZS, was installed in LHAASO at Haizishan (HZS), Daocheng, Sichuan. Besides, 2 clusters are tested at Hebei Normal University (HNU). ENDA-16-HZS is running and get amount of EAS events at energy above 100 TeV. Moreover, a number of coincident events between ENDA and the LHAASO electron detector (ED) and muon detector (MD) arrays composed the KM2A, as well as Cherenkov detectors WFCTA and WCDA are obtained. The events with cores falling into ENDA are selected. The ED array and ENDA accurately offers the EAS directions and the core positions respectively. Both the lateral distributions of neutrons, electrons and muons and the longitudinal development of atmospheric Cherenkov lights are effectively sampled. A hybrid detection of EAS including thermal neutrons, electrons, muons and Cherenkov lights can provide a strong capability of cosmic nuclei discrimination as well as energy measurement with high resolution. In this talk, the status of the clusters at the different places are summarized, and the preliminary results of coincident events between ENDA and the LHAASO array are presented.

The electron and neutron detector (EN-detector) can detect the thermal neutrons produced by hadronic components in the secondary particles of cosmic rays. According to our previous paper about the performance of EN-detectors in Yangbajing, Tibet, during the period from August 2019 to January 2020, the number of detected neutrons in rain season is significantly (∼ 10%) lower than that in periods of dry season. In order to further study the correlation between the detector performance and humidity in soil, five soil moisture meters have been installed at different depths inside ENDA-16-HZS in August 2020. By analyzing the data in September 2020, it is demonstrated that both counting rate of EN-detector and neutrons in triggered events are negatively correlated with humidity

We report the discovery of a new unidentified extended $\gamma$-ray source in the Galactic plane named LHAASO J0341+5258 with a pre-trial significance of 8.2 standard deviations above 25 TeV. The best fit position is R.A.$=55.34^{\circ}\pm0.11^{\circ}$ and Dec$=52.97^{\circ}\pm0.07^{\circ}$. The angular size of LHAASO J0341+5258 is $0.29^\circ \pm 0.06^\circ_{stat} \pm0.02^\circ_{sys}$. The flux above 25 TeV is about $20\%$ of the flux of Crab Nebula. Although a power-law fit of the spectrum from 10 TeV to 200 TeV with the photon index $\alpha=2.98 \pm 0.19_{stat} \pm 0.02_{sys}$ is not excluded, the LHAASO data together with the flux upper limit at 10 GeV set by the Fermi LAT observation, indicate a noticeable steepening of an initially hard power-law spectrum %($\alpha \leq 1.75$) spectrum with a cutoff at $\approx 50$ TeV. We briefly discuss the origin of UHE gamma-rays. The lack of an energetic pulsar and a young SNR inside or in the vicinity of LHAASO J0341+5258 challenge, but do not exclude both the leptonic and hadronic scenarios of gamma-ray production., Comment: Accepted by APJL

The measurement of thermal neutrons generated by cosmic ray extensive air showers (EAS) on the Earth’s surface provides a new method for studying the composition and energy of cosmic rays with energy in the so-called “knee” region. Given the success of the PRISMA-YBJ array, a new type of thermal neutron detector array was installed at the high-altitude cosmic ray observatory in Yangbajing, Tibet. The array consists of 16 EN-detectors and utilizes a new type scintillator based on a compound alloy of ZnS(Ag) and B2O3 with natural boron. This report describes the deployment of the detector array and its operational results.

Data on the EAS neutron component obtained using the PRISMA-32 array are presented. Secondary neutrons are first moderated and then detected by specialized scintillation electron–neutron detectors (en-detectors) within 20 ms of the arrival of the shower front. The PRISMA-32 array comprises 32 en-detectors and has been operated in the continuous data acquisition mode for more than five years.

The mass composition of primary cosmic rays remains an unresolved problem of physics in the region of energies above the knee. Results from different experiments are contradictory in assessments of the mean mass number and its variation as the primary energy grows. The PRISMA project is designed to study the energy spectrum and mass composition of cosmic rays at energies of 1015–1017 eV. The project is based on a detector capable of simultaneously detecting the electromagnetic and hadron components of a shower. The results are presented from measurements with the PRISMA-YBJ prototype located at 4300 m a.s.l., made over 3.5 years of operation. A new way of estimating the average mass composition from the electron/neutron ratio is tested.

The main scientific goal of the LHAASO WFCTA experiment is to measure the cosmic ray energy spectra and composition from 10 TeV to 1 EeV. Cherenkov photons in the extensive air shower measured by the SiPM camera of Cherenkov telescopes can be used to reconstruct the cosmic ray energy. The absolute calibration of the camera is a crucial step to achieve the accurate measurement of the cosmic ray energy spectrum. A multi-wavelength cylindrical illuminator based on LEDs is developed and mounted inside the telescope to calibrate and monitor the camera, and the illuminator’s stability is better than 0.5% under the temperature variation from -26 to 26 ° C. A portable probe with a single photoelectron resolution of 21.6% is developed. After calibration by National Institute of Metrology, China (NIM), the probe is taken to the LHAASO site to measure the absolute photon density of the cylindrical illuminator inside the telescope. Based on the illuminator with known photon density, the photon conversion factor of the camera can be calibrated, and the overall calibration uncertainty is less than 2.6%.

Thermal neutrons are detected using a scintillator compound based on ZnS(Ag) with B2O3 added to it. The pulse height generated by single charged particles in a scintillator of small thickness (50 mg/cm2) is not larger than that of a noise signal due to a low sensitivity to single charged particles. As a result, the detector satisfies the requirements of a low-background one in the context of cosmic-ray experiments. The detector is to be used for neutron detection in extensive air showers.

EN-detectors (Electron-Neutron Detector) can provide detection of both electrons and thermal neutrons generated in ground by secondary hadrons of extensive air shower (EAS). The 400 EN-detector array, so called ENDA (Electron-Neutron Detector Array), was proposed to add into the LHAASO (Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory) project to improve its capability of EAS hybrid detection. ENDA will be located at the center of the first 1/4 of the KM2A surface scintillator array. Supported by Tibet University, Institute of High Energy Physics of Chinese Academy of Sciences (IHEP CAS) and Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Science (INR RAS), 64 EN-detectors of so called ENDA-64 have been produced at Hebei Normal University and pulse shapes are sampled with FADCs made by Sichuan University, networked with the White Rabbit precise clock system. We expect to deploy ENDA-64 (64 EN-detectors) at LHAASO site in 2019. In this paper, we report the results of ENDA-16 (16 EN-detectors) testing run at Yangbajing (YBJ) together with YBJHA offering electrons and muons. It is the first time to obtain the high altitude hybrid detection results between neutrons, electrons and muons in EAS.

The LHAASO-ENDA (Electron Neutron Detector array) array will consist of 400 special electron-neutron detectors (en-detectors) developed at Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Science (INR RAS) for the PRISMA project. The main feature of the array is capability to simultaneously measure both number of EAS electrons and number of secondary neutrons produced by high energy hadrons in surrounding matter. Electron/neutron ratio was found to be a good parameter to separate different primary nuclei and also to search for gammainduced showers. Detailed Monte-Carlo simulations for the first-step array of 64 en-detectors is now performing. Mass composition analysis with machine learning techniques for Monte-Carlo simulated events is presented

The spatial distributions of electrons and hadrons in extensive air showers, obtained during the PRISMA-32 experiment simulation, are considered. The experiment was simulated for primary protons and iron nuclei using the CORSIKA6.9 and GEANT4.10 software packages. The simulated spatial distribution functions of electrons and neutrons in the extensive air showers (EAS) at the Moscow altitude are compared to the published experimental data of the PRISMA-32 setup.

The results of measurements of the spectrum of extensive air showers (EASs) by the number of neutrons detected by the PRISMA-32 setup are presented. The neutron component is formed during the interaction of high-energy shower hadrons with nuclei of atmospheric and Earth’s surface atoms. The PRISMA-32 setup consists of 32 en-detectors and operates in the continuous mode for about 5 years.

A new way of studying mass composition of cosmic rays is proposed. The electronic and hardronic components of extensive air showers (EASs) are measured over the area of the unit using special scintillator detectors (en-detectors). Shower distribution R = е/n (i.e., the ratio of release of energy measured by endetectors (е, in particles) to the number of recorded thermal neutrons (n)) is suggested for use as a measured parameter that depends on the atomic number of the primary particle. According to preliminary calculations, this distribution differs for different types of primary particles at the level of observation.

Some unexpected sporadic increases of an environmental radioactive background have been recorded at mountain level at Baksan Neutrino Observatory (BNO, 1700 m above sea level) using electron-neutron detectors (en-detectors), which could be explained by radioactive aerosol enhancements. The large area inorganic scintillator en-detectors developed for cosmic ray study are continuously monitoring environmental thermal neutron fluxes at various geophysical conditions. Application of the pulse shape discrimination method allows us to select and separately measure both thermal neutrons and radioactive beta-decay nuclides being products of radon decays in air (mostly Rn-222 and Rn-220). There are two en-detector setups running now at BNO, one deep underground while another one at surface. Both installations had recorded some strange sporadic increases of radioactive nuclides in air. In this paper, we present results and the most probable explanation of the significant increases joint by radioactive aerosols production but caused by different reasons: Baksan river floods or nearby underground experiment with powerful Cr-51 radioactive source.

Some new results were obtained by the array of EN-detectors (Electron and Neutron detectors) developed in the frame of the PRISMA (PRImary Spectrum Measurement Array) project for Extensive Air Showers detection. Our EN-detectors running both on the Earth surface and underground are continuously measuring the environmental thermal neutron flux. Neutrons are partially produced by radioactive gas radon and its daughter decays through (α,n)-reactions in soil close to the detectors. Then neutrons thermalize in media and, being in equilibrium with it, they are sensitive to many geo-dynamic phenomena including earthquakes. In this work the EN-detectors were measuring the variations of an environmental neutron flux in Tibet (30.11 N, 90.53 E, 4300 m a.s.l) at a distance of ∼600 km from the collision zone of the Asian-Indian plates subduction zone (Nepal region). We have observed some anomalies in the dynamics of the neutron flux around the time of the catastrophic earthquakes of magnitude M = 7.8 happened in Gorkha (Nepal) on 25.04.2015 followed by a series of aftershocks of M > 6. The use of nuclear physics methods can provide novel results in geophysics and this work demonstrates the sensitivity of the environmental thermal neutron flux to changes in tense-deformed crust conditions caused by earthquakes with epicentral distances greater than 500 km.

Primary cosmic ray energy spectrum above 1 PeV has been measured with PRISMA-YBJ being a prototype of PRISMA array at altitude of 4300 m a.s.l. It realized a novel type of EAS recording method measuring hadronic EAS component over the total array area through thermal neutron detection with a specially developed so-called en-detectors sensitive to electron and thermal neutron EAS components. Primary c. r. spectrum was recovered in 2 ways: through usual Ne procedure as well as through measurements of EAS size spectrum in thermal neutrons. Monte-Carlo simulations of the experiments allowed us recover the primary spectrum above 1 PeV. The both obtained spectra follow power law function with index close that measured by direct measurements below 1 PeV.

A novel method for studying the hadronic component of extensive air showers (EAS) is proposed. The method is based on recording thermal neutrons accompanying EAS with en-detectors that are sensitive to two EAS components: an electromagnetic (e) component and a hadron component in the form of neutrons (n). In contrast to hadron calorimeters used in some arrays, the proposed method makes it possible to record the hadronic component over the whole area of the array. The efficiency of a prototype array that consists of 32 en-detectors was tested for a long time, and some parameters of the neutron EAS component were determined.

Long-term variations in the natural thermal neutron flux in Tibet at an altitude of 4300 m above sea level are studied using scintillation electron-neutron detectors (en-detectors) developed at the Institute for Nuclear Research, Russian Academy of Sciences. Substantial growth (on the level of several percent each year over the last 3.5 years) in the thermal neutron flux recorded by the en-detectors is observed. The effect is explained by an increase in the low-energy cosmic ray flux, due to decreasing solar activity in the current solar cycle. Seasonal variations in anti-correlation with the rain season were also established.

EAS thermal neutrons measurement gives additional valuable advantages to study energy and mass composition of primary cosmic rays especially above the knee region. After success of the PRISMA-YBJ experiment we built a new EAS thermal neutron detection array at Tibet University, Lhasa, China (3700m a.s.l.) in March, 2017. This prototype array consists of 16 EAS en-detectors measuring two main EAS components: hadronic and electromagnetic ones. These detectors use a thin layer of a novel type of ZnS(Ag) scintillator alloyed with natural boron compound for thermal neutron capture. In this report, we introduce principle of the detection technique, deployment of the array, and the test results obtained with the array.

Primary cosmic ray mass composition above 1 PeV has been measured with PRISMA-YBJ being a prototype of PRISMA array at altitude of 4300 m a.s.l. It realized a novel type of EAS recording method measuring hadronic EAS component over the total array area through thermal neutron detection with a specially developed so-called en-detectors sensitive to electron and thermal neutron EAS components. Primary c. r. mass composition was recovered through measurements of two EAS components with the en-detectors: electromagnetic (energy deposit) and the number of secondary thermal neutrons produced locally by high energy hadrons. Monte-Carlo simulations of the experiments allowed us to find a parameter highly sensitive to the primary particle mass (atomic number) A above 1 PeV. The preliminary obtained mass composition is consistent with light composition and does not show any significant change at higher energies.

The results from the registration and analysis of sporadic variations of atmospheric thermal neutron flux during thunderstorms are reported. Measurements were performed in Moscow and at the Baksan Neutrino Observatory of the Institute for Nuclear Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The neutron flux was detected by unscreened scintillation en-detectors based on 6LiF + ZnS (Ag) compound targets with signals selected according to pulse shape. Reductions of 5–10% in the neutron flux due to shower precipitates during thunderstorms are detected. No incidents of increased neutron flux during thunderstorms were detected over four summer seasons. The upper limits for the integrated and pulsed flux of neutrons from thunderbolts are estimated.

The results from a 29-month investigation into the EAS electromagnetic component using the PRISMA-32 array are presented, notably for the central density spectrum and energy deposit spectrum. The array consists of 32 en-detectors in which specialized inorganic scintillators (SL6-5 phosphorus composition) based on silver-activated zinc sulfide (ZnS) with LiF enriched to 90% 6Li (ZnS(Ag) + 6LiF) are used as detecting layers. The possibility of detecting the electromagnetic component using a thin scintillation neutron detector with the multiple passage of charged particles is shown. The experimental data are compared to the results from simulations.

Some exotic geophysical events are observed by a global net of electron-neutron detectors (en-detectors) developed in the framework of the PRISMA EAS project. Our en-detectors running both on the Earth's surface and underground are continuously measuring the environmental thermal neutron flux. Thermal neutrons are in equilibrium with media and are therefore sensitive to many geophysical phenomena, which are exotic for people studying ultra high-energy cosmic rays or carrying out low background experiments deep underground.

An Extensive Air Shower array of a novel type has been constructed in Tibet at an altitude of 4300 m above sea level. It consists of specially designed scintillator en-detectors capable of measuring two main EAS components: hadrons (n) and electrons (e). Results of the experiment are presented. It is demonstrated that the EAS integral distribution in the number of thermal neutrons can be well fitted by a single power law function. Comparison with detailed Monte-Carlo simulations using CORSIKA6.9 and GEANT4.10 codes are also shown.

The status of and main features of the PRISMA-LHAASO project are presented. We discuss here the science project and some preliminary results obtained with the PRISMA prototype.

Air radon concentration measurement is useful for research on geophysical effects, but it is strongly sensitive to site geology and many geophysical and microclimatic processes such as wind, ventilation, air humidity and so on that induce very big fluctuations on the concentration of radon in air. On the contrary, monitoring the radon concentration in soil by measuring the thermal neutron flux reduces environmental effects. In this paper we report some experimental results on the natural thermal neutron flux as well as the concentration of air radon and its variations at 4300 m a.s.l. These results were obtained with unshielded thermal neutron scintillation detectors (en-detectors) and radon monitors located inside the ARGO-YBJ experimental hall. The correlation of these variations with the lunar month and 1-year period is undoubtedly confirmed. A method for earthquakes prediction provided by a global net of the en-detectors is currently under study., 16 pages, 7 figures

EAS (extensive air shower) thermal neutron measurement gives advantages to study energy and mass composition of primary cosmic rays especially in the knee region. After the success of the PRISMA-YBJ experiment, we build a new EAS thermal neutron detection array at Tibet University, Lhasa, China (3700 m a.s.l.) in March, 2017. This prototype array so called "PRISMA-LHAASO-16" consists of 16 EAS EN-detectors ("EN" is abbreviation for electron and neutron) measuring two main EAS components: hadronic and electromagnetic ones. Different from PRISMA-YBJ, these detectors use a thin layer of a novel type of ZnS(Ag) scintillator alloyed with natural boron compound for thermal neutron capture. PRISMA-LHAASO-16 will be moved to the LHAASO site in the near future. In this paper, we introduce principle of the detection technique, deployment of the array, and the test results of the array.

We report here, in brief, some results of the observation and analysis of sporadic variations of atmospheric thermal neutron flux during thunderstorms. The results obtained with unshielded scintillation neutron detectors show a prominent flux decrease correlated with meteorological precipitations after a long dry period. No observations of neutron production during thunderstorms were reported during the three-year period of data recording.

Some results on the EAS neutron component measurements by means of the PRISMA-32 array are presented. The array consists of 32 electron-neutron detectors (en-detectors) capable to detect two main EAS components: electromagnetic one consisting of charged particles, and hadronic one by measuring delayed thermal neutrons accompanying the showers. For thermal neutrons detection, a compound of a well-known inorganic scintillator ZnS(Ag) and LiF, enriched to 90 % with 6Li isotope is used. The setup allows us to record neutron component over the whole array area.

EAS array of novel type have been constructed on the base of ARGO-YBJ experiment (Tibet, China). It consists of the four specially designed scintillator en-detectors capable to measure two main EAS components: hadrons through thermal neutrons (n) and electrons (e). The results of simulation for these arrays using CORSIKA and GEANT4 codes are presented. Simulated thermal neutron and electron lateral distributions are compared with experimental data. Obtained distributions are compared with those obtained by other arrays.

The idea of a novel type detector array is the following: delayed thermal neutrons generated by hadronic component of Extensive Air Showers (EAS) can be detected over the whole array area using special electron-neutron detectors (en-detectors). The array PRISMA-32 consists of 32 en-detectors, deployed over the area of 450 m2. En-detectors are able to detect two main EAS components: electromagnetic one in a case of a synchronous passage of several charged particles, and hadronic component through thermal neutron captures. Detectors are based on a specialized inorganic scintillator, being a granulated alloy of ZnS(Ag) with LiF, enriched up to 90% with 6Li isotope. The array is triggered by the electromagnetic component of EAS, and provides information about the energy deposit (mostly electrons) and delayed neutrons accompanying the EAS within 20 ms after the trigger. During 2 years of operation more than 105 events were recorded. Examples of EAS detection are presented.