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3. Cross-linguistic patterns in the acquisition of quantifiers

Author

Katsos, Napoleon, Cummins, Chris, Ezeizabarrena, Maria-José, Gavarró, Anna, Kraljević, Jelena Kuvač, Hrzica, Gordana, Grohmann, Kleanthes K., Skordi, Athina, de López, Kristine Jensen, Sundahl, Lone, van Hout, Angeliek, Hollebrandse, Bart, Overweg, Jessica, Faber, Myrthe, van Koert, Margreet, Smith, Nafsika, Vija, Maigi, Zupping, Sirli, Kunnari, Sari, Morisseau, Tiffany, Rusieshvili, Manana, Yatsushiro, Kazuko, Fengler, Anja, Varlokosta, Spyridoula, Konstantzou, Katerina, Farby, Shira, Guasti, Maria Teresa, Vernice, Mirta, Okabe, Reiko, Isobe, Miwa, Crosthwaite, Peter, Hong, Yoonjee, Balčiūnienė, Ingrida, Nizar, Yanti Marina Ahmad, Grech, Helen, Gatt, Daniela, Cheong, Win Nee, Asbjørnsen, Arve, von Koss Torkildsen, Janne, Haman, Ewa, Miękisz, Aneta, Gagarina, Natalia, Puzanova, Julia, Anđelković, Darinka, Savić, Maja, Jošić, Smiljana, Slančová, Daniela, Kapalková, Svetlana, Barberán, Tania, Özge, Duygu, Hassan, Saima, Chan, Cecilia Yuet Hung, Okubo, Tomoya, van der Lely, Heather, Sauerland, Uli, and Noveck, Ira

Published
2016

8. Validation of the General Medicine in-Training Examination Using the Professional and Linguistic Assessments Board Examination Among Postgraduate Residents in Japan

Author

Nagasaki, Kazuya, primary, Nishizaki, Yuji, additional, Nojima, Masanori, additional, Shimizu, Taro, additional, Konishi, Ryota, additional, Okubo, Tomoya, additional, Yamamoto, Yu, additional, Morishima, Ryo, additional, Kobayashi, Hiroyuki, additional, and Tokuda, Yasuharu, additional

Published
2021
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12. Additional file 1 of Difference in the general medicine in-training examination score between community-based hospitals and university hospitals: a cross-sectional study based on 15,188 Japanese resident physicians

Author

Nishizaki, Yuji, Nozawa, Keigo, Shinozaki, Tomohiro, Shimizu, Taro, Okubo, Tomoya, Yamamoto, Yu, Konishi, Ryota, and Tokuda, Yasuharu

Abstract

Additional file 1 Appendix 1. An example of a good-quality question and test analysis. Appendix Table 1. Parameter estimates of two-level linear models for the GM-ITE total score. Appendix Table 2. Parameter estimates of three-level linear models for the GM-ITE subcategory scores

Published
2021
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13. Validation of the General Medicine in-Training Examination Using the Professional and Linguistic Assessments Board Examination Among Postgraduate Residents in Japan

Author

Nagasaki,Kazuya, Nishizaki,Yuji, Nojima,Masanori, Shimizu,Taro, Konishi,Ryota, Okubo,Tomoya, Yamamoto,Yu, Morishima,Ryo, Kobayashi,Hiroyuki, Tokuda,Yasuharu, Nagasaki,Kazuya, Nishizaki,Yuji, Nojima,Masanori, Shimizu,Taro, Konishi,Ryota, Okubo,Tomoya, Yamamoto,Yu, Morishima,Ryo, Kobayashi,Hiroyuki, and Tokuda,Yasuharu

Abstract

Kazuya Nagasaki,1 Yuji Nishizaki,2,3 Masanori Nojima,4 Taro Shimizu,5 Ryota Konishi,6 Tomoya Okubo,7 Yu Yamamoto,8 Ryo Morishima,9 Hiroyuki Kobayashi,1 Yasuharu Tokuda10 1Department of Internal Medicine, Mito Kyodo General Hospital, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan; 2Medical Technology Innovation Center, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan; 3Division of Medical Education, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan; 4Center for Translational Research, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; 5Department of Diagnostic and Generalist Medicine, Dokkyo Medical University Hospital, Tochigi, Japan; 6Education Adviser Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Kanagawa, Japan; 7Research Division, The National Center for University Entrance Examinations, Tokyo, Japan; 8Division of General Medicine, Center for Community Medicine, Jichi Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi, Japan; 9Department of Neurology, Tokyo Metropolitan Neurological Hospital, Tokyo, Japan; 10Muribushi Okinawa for Teaching Hospitals, Okinawa, JapanCorrespondence: Yuji NishizakiMedical Technology Innovation Center, Juntendo University, 2-1-1 Hongo Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8421, JapanTel +81-3-3813-3111Fax +81-3-5689-0627Email ynishiza@juntendo.ac.jpPurpose: In Japan, the General Medicine In-training Examination (GM-ITE) was developed by a non-profit organization in 2012. The GM-ITE aimed to assess the general clinical knowledge among residents and to improve the training programs; however, it has not been sufficiently validated and is not used for high-stake decision-making. This study examined the association between GM-ITE and another test measure, the Professional and Linguistic Assessments Board (PLAB) 1 examination.Methods: Ninety-seven residents who completed the GM-ITE in fiscal year 2019 were recruited and took the PLAB 1 examination in Japanese. The association between two tests was assessed using the Pearson product-moment statistics.

Published
2021

15. Impact of the resident duty hours on in-training examination score: A nationwide study in Japan.

Author

Nagasaki, Kazuya, Nishizaki, Yuji, Shinozaki, Tomohiro, Kobayashi, Hiroyuki, Shimizu, Taro, Okubo, Tomoya, Yamamoto, Yu, Konishi, Ryota, and Tokuda, Yasuharu

Subjects
SHIFT systems, HOSPITAL medical staff, INTERNAL medicine, ACADEMIC medical centers, CROSS-sectional method, MEDICAL students, REGRESSION analysis, INTERNSHIP programs, COMPARATIVE studies, DESCRIPTIVE statistics, QUESTIONNAIRES, WORKING hours
Abstract

The relationship between duty hours (DH) and the performance of postgraduate residents is needed to establish appropriate DH limits. This study explores their relationship using the General Medicine In-training Examination (GM-ITE). In this cross-sectional study, GM-ITE examinees of 2019 had participated. We analyzed data from the examination and questionnaire, including DH per week (eight categories). We examined the association between DH and GM-ITE score, using random-intercept linear models with and without adjustments. Five thousand five hundred and ninety-three participants (50.7% PGY-1, 31.6% female, 10.0% university hospitals) were included. Mean GM-ITE scores were lower among residents in Category 2 (45–50 h; mean score difference, −1.05; p < 0.001) and Category 4 (55–60 h; −0.63; p = 0.008) compared with residents in Category 5 (60–65 h; Reference). PGY-2 residents in Categories 2–4 had lower GM-ITE scores compared to those in Category 5. University residents in Category 1 and Category 5 showed a large mean difference (−3.43; p = 0.01). DH <60–65 h per week was independently associated with lower resident performance, but more DH did not improve performance. DH of 60–65 h per week may be the optimal balance for a resident's education and well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2022
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16. Cross-linguistic patterns in the acquisition of quantifiers

Author

Torkildsen von Koss, Janne, Katsos, Napoleon, Cummins, Chris, Ezeizabarrena, Maria-Jose, Gavarro, Anna, Kuvac Kraljevic, Jelena, Hrzica, Gordana, Grohmann, Kleanthes K., Skordi, Athina, Jensen de Lopez, Kristine, Sundahl, Lone, Van Hout, Angeliek, Hollebrandse, Bart, Overweg, Jessica, Faber, Myrthe, Van Koert, Margreet, Smith, Nafsika, Vija, Maigi, Zupping, Sirli, Kunnari, Sari, Morisseau, Tiffany, Rusieshvili, Manana, Yatsushiro, Kazuko, Fengler, Anja, Varlokosta, Spyridoula, Konstantzou, Katerina, Farby, Shira, Guasti, Maria Teresa, Vernice, Mirta, Okabe, Reiko, Isobe, Miwa, Crosthwaite, Peter, Hong, Yoonjee, Balciuniene, Ingrida, Ahmad Nizar, Yanti Marina, Grech, Helen, Gatt, Daniela, Cheong, Win Nee, Asbjornsen, Arve, Haman, Ewa, Miekisz, Aneta, Gagarina, Natalia, Puzanova, Julia, Anđelković, Darinka, Savic, Maja, Josic, Smiljana, Slancova, Daniela, Kapalkova, Svetlana, Barberan, Tania, Ozge, Duygu, Hassan, Saima, Chan, Cecilia Yuet, Okubo, Tomoya, Van der Lely, Heather, Sauerland, Uli, Noveck, Ira, Özge, Duygu, Katsos, Napoleon, Cummins, Chris, Ezeizabarrena, Maria-Jose, Gavarro, Anna, Kraljevic, Jelena Kuvac, Hrzica, Gordana, Grohmann, Kleanthes K., Skordi, Athina, de Lopez, Kristine Jensen, Sundahl, Lone, van Hout, Angeliek, Hollebrandse, Bart, Overweg, Jessica, Faber, Myrthe, van Koert, Margreet, Smith, Nafsika, Vija, Maigi, Zupping, Sirli, Kunnari, Sari, Morisseau, Tiffany, Rusieshvili, Manana, Yatsushiro, Kazuko, Fengler, Anja, Varlokosta, Spyridoula, Konstantzou, Katerina, Farby, Shira, Guasti, Maria Teresa, Vernice, Mirta, Okabe, Reiko, Isobe, Miwa, Crosthwaite, Peter, Hong, Yoonjee, Balciuniene, Ingrida, Nizar, Yanti Marina Ahmad, Grech, Helen, Gatt, Daniela, Cheong, Win Nee, Asbjornsen, Arve, Torkildsen, Janne von Koss, Haman, Ewa, Miekisz, Aneta, Gagarina, Natalia, Puzanova, Julia, Andelkovic, Darinka, Savic, Maja, Josic, Smiljana, Slancova, Daniela, Kapalkova, Svetlana, Barberan, Tania, Hassan, Saima, Chan, Cecilia Yuet Hung, Okubo, Tomoya, van der Lely, Heather, Sauerland, Uli, Noveck, Ira, College of Social Sciences and Humanities, Department of Psychology, Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering Division [London], Guy's and St Thomas' Hospital [London]-King‘s College London, Institute for Solid State Physics [Tokyo] (ISSP), The University of Tokyo (UTokyo), China National Research Center of Intelligent Equipment for Agriculture [Beijing] (NRCIEA), University of Oklahoma (OU), Kobe University, Institut des Sciences Cognitives (ISC), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)-Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL), Université de Lyon-Université de Lyon, Institut des Sciences cognitives Marc Jeannerod - Laboratoire sur le langage, le cerveau et la cognition (L2C2), École normale supérieure - Lyon (ENS Lyon)-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)-Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL), ACLC (FGw), Neurolinguistics and Language Development (NLD), Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL), Université de Lyon-Université de Lyon-Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), École normale supérieure de Lyon (ENS de Lyon)-Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 (UCBL), Grohmann, Kleanthes K. [0000-0003-4298-3191], Katsos, Napoleon [0000-0002-4722-674X], Ezeizabarrena, Maria-José [0000-0002-9108-9498], Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository, Katsosa, N, Cumminsb, C, Ezeizabarrenac, M, Gavarród, A, Kraljeviće, J, Hrzicae, G, Grohmannf, K, Skordig, A, De Lópezh, K, Sundahlh, L, Van Hout, A, Hollebrandse, B, Overweg, J, Faber, M, Van Koert, M, Smith, N, Vija, M, Zupping, S, Kunnari, S, Morisseau, T, Rusieshvili, M, Yatsushiro, K, Fengler, A, Varlokosta, S, Konstantzou, K, Farby, S, Guasti, M, Vernice, M, Okabev, R, Isobew, M, Crosthwaitex, P, Hongy, Y, Balčiunienez, I, Nizarg, Y, Grechaa, H, Gattaa, D, Cheongbb, W, Asbjørnsencc, A, Von Torkildsendd, J, Hamanee, E, Miȩkiszee, A, Gagarinaq, N, Puzanovaff, J, Andelković, D, Savić, M, Jošić, S, Slaňcováhh, D, Kapalkováii, S, Barberánc, T, Özgejj, D, Hassankk, S, Chanll, C, Okubomm, T, Van Der Lelynn, H, Sauerlandq, U, and Noveck, I

Subjects
Male, Computer science, Social Sciences, CHILDREN, MEANINGS, Generalization, Psychological, [SCCO]Cognitive science, Cognition, TURN-TAKING, Language acquisition, Quantifiers, Semantics, Pragmatics, Typology, Child, semantics, ComputingMilieux_MISCELLANEOUS, Language, media_common, Multidisciplinary, quantifiers, 4. Education, 05 social sciences, 06 humanities and the arts, Linguistics, language acquisition, Child, Preschool, 0602 languages and literature, Quantifier, Developmental linguistics, Language acquisition -- Case studies, Female, Comprehension, pragmatics, Universal, Cross linguistic, Pragmatic, Adult, Order of acquisition, media_common.quotation_subject, Generalization, Multidisciplinary sciences, 050105 experimental psychology, Perceptual Development, universals, Perception, LOGIC, Humans, Learning, 0501 psychology and cognitive sciences, Preschool, Competence (human resources), 060201 languages & linguistics, NUMBER WORDS, Grammar, Comparative and general -- Quantifiers, ADULTS, PERFORMANCE, Language Acquisition, Universals, Psychological, Semantic, UNIVERSALS
Abstract

This research was funded by European Cooperation in Science and Technology Action A33 “Cross-Linguistically Robust Stages of Children’s Linguistic Performance.” In addition, N.K., C.C., and I.N. were supported by the European Science Foundation Euro-XPrag Network; N.K., C.C., and N.S. were supported by the United Kingdom Economic and Social Research Council XPrag-UK Network; N.K. was supported by United Kingdom British Academy Grant SG090676; A.G. was supported by Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad Project FFI2014-56968-C4-1; A.G. and K.K.G. were supported by University of Cyprus Project 8037-61017; K.J.d.L. and L.S. were supported by Danish Council for Independent Research (Humanities) Grant 09-063957; M. Vija and S.Z. were supported by Estonian Science Foundation Grant ETF7492 and Estonian Research Council Grant SF0180056s08; K.Y. and U.S. were supported by European Commission for Education and Culture Grant 135295-LLP-2007-UK-KA1SCR and German Federal Ministry of Education and Research Grant 01UG0711; A.A. and J.v.K.T. were supported by a grant from the L. Meltzers Høyskolefond; E.H. and A.M. were supported by Grant 809/N-COST/2010/0 from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education and National Science Centre; and D.A., M.S., and S.J. were supported by Grant ON179033 (2011-2014) from the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science, and Technological Development., Learners of most languages are faced with the task of acquiring words to talk about number and quantity. Much is known about the order of acquisition of number words as well as the cognitive and perceptual systems and cultural practices that shape it. Substantially less is known about the acquisition of quantifiers. Here we consider the extent to which systems and practices that support number word acquisition can be applied to quantifier acquisition and conclude that the two domains are largely distinct in this respect. Consequently, we hypothesize that the acquisition of quantifiers is constrained by a set of factors related to each quantifier’s specific meaning. We investigate competence with the expressions for ‘all’, ‘none’, ‘some’, ‘some ... not’ and ‘most’ in 31 languages, representing 11 language types, by testing 768 5-year-old children and 536 adults. We found a cross-linguistically similar order of acquisition of quantifiers, explicable in terms of four factors relating to their meaning and use. In addition, exploratory analyses reveal that language- and learner-specific factors, such as negative concord and gender, are significant predictors of variation., peer-reviewed

Published
2016

31. Cross-linguistic patterns in the acquisition of quantifiers

Author

Özge, Duygu, Katsos, Napoleon; Cummins, Chris; Ezeizabarrena, Maria-Jose; Gavarro, Anna; Kraljevic, Jelena Kuvac; Hrzica, Gordana; Grohmann, Kleanthes K.; Skordi, Athina; de Lopez, Kristine Jensen; Sundahl, Lone; van Hout, Angeliek; Hollebrandse, Bart; Overweg, Jessica; Faber, Myrthe; van Koert, Margreet; Smith, Nafsika; Vija, Maigi; Zupping, Sirli; Kunnari, Sari; Morisseau, Tiffany; Rusieshvili, Manana; Yatsushiro, Kazuko; Fengler, Anja; Varlokosta, Spyridoula; Konstantzou, Katerina; Farby, Shira; Guasti, Maria Teresa; Vernice, Mirta; Okabe, Reiko; Isobe, Miwa; Crosthwaite, Peter; Hong, Yoonjee; Balciuniene, Ingrida; Nizar, Yanti Marina Ahmad; Grech, Helen; Gatt, Daniela; Cheong, Win Nee; Asbjornsen, Arve; Torkildsen, Janne von Koss; Haman, Ewa; Miekisz, Aneta; Gagarina, Natalia; Puzanova, Julia; Andelkovic, Darinka; Savic, Maja; Josic, Smiljana; Slancova, Daniela; Kapalkova, Svetlana; Barberan, Tania; Hassan, Saima; Chan, Cecilia Yuet Hung; Okubo, Tomoya; van der Lely, Heather; Sauerland, Uli; Noveck, Ira, College of Social Sciences and Humanities, Department of Psychology, Özge, Duygu, Katsos, Napoleon; Cummins, Chris; Ezeizabarrena, Maria-Jose; Gavarro, Anna; Kraljevic, Jelena Kuvac; Hrzica, Gordana; Grohmann, Kleanthes K.; Skordi, Athina; de Lopez, Kristine Jensen; Sundahl, Lone; van Hout, Angeliek; Hollebrandse, Bart; Overweg, Jessica; Faber, Myrthe; van Koert, Margreet; Smith, Nafsika; Vija, Maigi; Zupping, Sirli; Kunnari, Sari; Morisseau, Tiffany; Rusieshvili, Manana; Yatsushiro, Kazuko; Fengler, Anja; Varlokosta, Spyridoula; Konstantzou, Katerina; Farby, Shira; Guasti, Maria Teresa; Vernice, Mirta; Okabe, Reiko; Isobe, Miwa; Crosthwaite, Peter; Hong, Yoonjee; Balciuniene, Ingrida; Nizar, Yanti Marina Ahmad; Grech, Helen; Gatt, Daniela; Cheong, Win Nee; Asbjornsen, Arve; Torkildsen, Janne von Koss; Haman, Ewa; Miekisz, Aneta; Gagarina, Natalia; Puzanova, Julia; Andelkovic, Darinka; Savic, Maja; Josic, Smiljana; Slancova, Daniela; Kapalkova, Svetlana; Barberan, Tania; Hassan, Saima; Chan, Cecilia Yuet Hung; Okubo, Tomoya; van der Lely, Heather; Sauerland, Uli; Noveck, Ira, College of Social Sciences and Humanities, and Department of Psychology

Abstract

Learners of most languages are faced with the task of acquiring words to talk about number and quantity. Much is known about the order of acquisition of number words as well as the cognitive and perceptual systems and cultural practices that shape it. Substantially less is known about the acquisition of quantifiers. Here, we consider the extent to which systems and practices that support number word acquisition can be applied to quantifier acquisition and conclude that the two domains are largely distinct in this respect. Consequently, we hypothesize that the acquisition of quantifiers is constrained by a set of factors related to each quantifier's specific meaning. We investigate competence with the expressions for "all," "none," "some," "some. not," and "most" in 31 languages, representing 11 language types, by testing 768 5-y-old children and 536 adults. We found a cross-linguistically similar order of acquisition of quantifiers, explicable in terms of four factors relating to their meaning and use. In addition, exploratory analyses reveal that language-and learner-specific factors, such as negative concord and gender, are significant predictors of variation., European Cooperation in Science and Technology Action A33 "Cross-Linguistically Robust Stages of Children's Linguistic Performance"; European Science Foundation Euro-XPrag Network; United Kingdom Economic and Social Research Council XPrag-UK Network; United Kingdom British Academy Grant; Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad Project; University of Cyprus Project; Danish Council for Independent Research (Humanities) Grant; Estonian Science Foundation; Estonian Research Council Grant; European Commission for Education and Culture Grant; German Federal Ministry of Education and Research Grant; L. Meltzers Hoyskolefond; Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education; National Science Centre; Serbian Ministry of Education, Science, and Technological Development

Published
2016

38. Introducing the Professionalism Mini-Evaluation Exercise (P-MEX) in Japan: Results From a Multicenter, Cross-Sectional Study

Author

Tsugawa, Yusuke, primary, Ohbu, Sadayoshi, additional, Cruess, Richard, additional, Cruess, Sylvia, additional, Okubo, Tomoya, additional, Takahashi, Osamu, additional, Tokuda, Yasuharu, additional, Heist, Brian S., additional, Bito, Seiji, additional, Itoh, Toshiyuki, additional, Aoki, Akiko, additional, Chiba, Tsutomu, additional, and Fukui, Tsuguya, additional

Published
2011
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41. Japanese Health Knowledge Test

Author

Tokuda, Yasuharu, primary, Okubo, Tomoya, additional, Yanai, Haruo, additional, Doba, Nobutaka, additional, and Paasche-Orlow, Michael K., additional

Published
2010
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45. Cross-linguistic patterns in the acquisition of quantifiers

Author

Katsos, Napoleon, Cummins, Chris, Ezeizabarrena, Maria-José, Gavarró, Anna, Kuvač Kraljević, Jelena, Hrzica, Gordana, Grohmann, Kleanthes K, Skordi, Athina, Jensen De López, Kristine, Sundahl, Lone, Van Hout, Angeliek, Hollebrandse, Bart, Overweg, Jessica, Faber, Myrthe, Van Koert, Margreet, Smith, Nafsika, Vija, Maigi, Zupping, Sirli, Kunnari, Sari, Morisseau, Tiffany, Rusieshvili, Manana, Yatsushiro, Kazuko, Fengler, Anja, Varlokosta, Spyridoula, Konstantzou, Katerina, Farby, Shira, Guasti, Maria Teresa, Vernice, Mirta, Okabe, Reiko, Isobe, Miwa, Crosthwaite, Peter, Hong, Yoonjee, Balčiūnienė, Ingrida, Ahmad Nizar, Yanti Marina, Grech, Helen, Gatt, Daniela, Cheong, Win Nee, Asbjørnsen, Arve, Torkildsen, Janne Von Koss, Haman, Ewa, Miękisz, Aneta, Gagarina, Natalia, Puzanova, Julia, Anđelković, Darinka, Savić, Maja, Jošić, Smiljana, Slančová, Daniela, Kapalková, Svetlana, Barberán, Tania, Özge, Duygu, Hassan, Saima, Chan, Cecilia Yuet Hung, Okubo, Tomoya, Van Der Lely, Heather, Sauerland, Uli, and Noveck, Ira

Subjects
Adult, Male, quantifiers, 4. Education, Linguistics, Generalization, Psychological, Semantics, language acquisition, universals, Child, Preschool, FOS: Languages and literature, Humans, Learning, Female, Comprehension, pragmatics, Language
Abstract

Learners of most languages are faced with the task of acquiring words to talk about number and quantity. Much is known about the order of acquisition of number words as well as the cognitive and perceptual systems and cultural practices that shape it. Substantially less is known about the acquisition of quantifiers. Here, we consider the extent to which systems and practices that support number word acquisition can be applied to quantifier acquisition and conclude that the two domains are largely distinct in this respect. Consequently, we hypothesize that the acquisition of quantifiers is constrained by a set of factors related to each quantifier's specific meaning. We investigate competence with the expressions for "all," "none," "some," "some…not," and "most" in 31 languages, representing 11 language types, by testing 768 5-y-old children and 536 adults. We found a cross-linguistically similar order of acquisition of quantifiers, explicable in terms of four factors relating to their meaning and use. In addition, exploratory analyses reveal that language- and learner-specific factors, such as negative concord and gender, are significant predictors of variation.

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