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We perform two-dimensional radiation hydrodynamical simulations of accretion flows onto a black hole (BH) with a mass of $10^3\leq M_{\rm BH}/M_{\odot} \lesssim 10^6$ in order to study rapid growth of BHs in the early Universe. For spherically symmetric flows, hyper-Eddington accretion onto the BH from outside the Bondi radius can occur unimpeded by radiation feedback only when the BH mass is higher than $\simeq 10^4~M_{\odot}(n_\infty/10^5~{\rm cm}^{-3})^{-1}(T_\infty/10^4~{\rm K})^{3/2}$, where $n_\infty$ and $T_\infty$ are the density and temperature of ambient gas. Here, we study the properties of accretion flows exposed to anisotropic radiation from a nuclear accretion disk with a luminosity higher than the Eddington value ($L_{\rm Edd}$) due to collimation toward the bipolar directions. We find that, unlike the spherically symmetric case, even less massive BHs with $M_{\rm BH} < 10^4~M_{\odot}$ can be fed by surrounding gas at high accretion rates of $\gtrsim L_{\rm Edd}/c^2$ through the equatorial plane, while ionized regions expand to the polar directions producing hot outflows with $T\sim 10^5$K. For more massive BHs with $M_{\rm BH}\gtrsim 5\times 10^5~M_{\odot}$, neutral gas through the equatorial plane totally covers the central radiating region due to the non-radial gas motions, and thus the emergent radiation in all directions is blocked. Because of efficient recombination by hydrogen, the entire flow results in neutral and warm gas with $T \simeq 8000~{\rm K}$ . The central BH is fed through the equator at the averaged rate of $\sim 5\times 10^4~L_{\rm Edd}/c^2$, which corresponds to $\sim 50~\%$ of the inflow rate from the Bondi radius. Moreover, radiation momentum absorbed by neutral hydrogen produces warm outflows toward the bipolar directions at $\sim 30~\%$ of the BH feeding rate and with a typical velocity of $\simeq 50~{\rm km~s}^{-1}$., Comment: 10 pages, 10 figures

In order to understand the physical processes underlying clump formation in outflow from supercritical accretion flow, we performed two-dimensional radiation hydrodynamic (RHD) simulations. We focus our discussion on the nature of RHD instability in marginally optically thick, plane-parallel, super-Eddington atmosphere. Initially we set two-layered atmosphere with a density contrast of 100 exposed to strong, upward continuum-radiation force; the lower layer is denser than the upper one, condition for an RHD instability. We assume non-zero but negligible gravitational force, compared with the radiation force. We find that short wavelength perturbations first grow, followed by growth of longer wavelength patterns, which lead to the formation of clumpy structure. The typical size of clumps (clouds) corresponds to about one optical depth. An anti-correlation between the radiation pressure and the gas pressure is confirmed: this anti-correlation provides a damping mechanism of longer wavelength perturbations than the typical clump size. Matter and radiation energy densities are correlated. These features are exactly what we found in the radiation-magnetohydrodynamic (radiation-MHD) simulations of supercritical outflow., Comment: 8 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication in PASJ

Significant fraction of matter in supercritical (or super-Eddington) accretion flow is blown away by radiation force, thus forming outflows, however, the properties of such radiation-driven outflows have been poorly understood. We have performed global two-dimensional radiaion-magnetohydrodynamic simulations of supercritical accretion flow onto a black hole with 10 or 10^8 solar masses in a large simulation box of 514 r_S x 514 r_S (with r_S being the Schwarzschild radius). We confirm that uncollimated outflows with velocities of 10 percents of the speed of light emerge from the innermost part of the accretion flow over wide angles of 10 - 50 degree from the disk rotation axis. Importantly, the outflows exhibit clumpy structure above heights of ~ 250 r_S. The typical size of the clumps is ~ 10 r_S, which corresponds to one optical depth, and their shapes are slightly elongated along the outflow direction. Since clumps start to form in the layer above which (upward) radiation force overcomes (downward) gravity force, Rayleigh-Taylor instability seems to be of primary cause. In addition, a radiation hydrodynamic instability, which arises when radiation funnels through radiation-pressure supported atmosphere, may also help forming clumps of one optical depth. Magnetic photon bubble instability seems not to be essential, since similar clumpy outflow structure is obtained in non-magnetic radiation-hydrodynamic simulations. Since the spatial covering factor of the clumps is estimated to be ~ 0.3 and since they are marginally optically thick, they will explain at least some of rapid light variations of active galactic nuclei. We further discuss a possibility of producing broad-line clouds by the clumpy outflow., Comment: 11 pages, 8 figures, accepted for publication in PASJ

Relativistic jets from compact objects are ubiquitous phenomena in the Unvierse, but their driving mechanism has been an enigmatic issue over many decades. Two basic models have been extensively discussed: magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) jets and radiation-hydrodynamic (RHD) jets. Currently, the former is more widely accepted, since magnetic field is expected to provide both the acceleration and collimation mechanisms, whereas radiation field cannot collimate outflow. Here, we propose a new type of jets, radiation-magnetohydrodynamic (RMHD) jets, based on our global RMHD simulation of luminous accretion flow onto a black hole shining above the Eddington luminosity. The RMHD jet can be accelerated up to the relativistic speed by the radiation-pressure force and is collimated by the Lorentz force of a magnetic tower, inflated magnetic structure made by toroidal magnetic field lines accumulated around the black hole, though radiation energy greatly dominates over magnetic energy. This magnetic tower is collimated by a geometrically thick accretion flow supported by radiation-pressure force. This type of jet may explain relativistic jets from Galactic microquasars, appearing at high luminosities., Comment: 5 pages, 2 figures, accepted for publication in PASJ

By solving radiative transfer equations, we examine three-dimensional radiative properties of a magnetohydrodynamic accretion flow model confronting with the observed spectrum of Sgr A*, in the vicinity of supermassive black hole at the Galactic centre. As a result, we find that the core of radio emission is larger than the size of the event horizon shadow and its peak location is shifted from the gravitational centre. We also find that the self-absorbed synchrotron emissions by the superposition of thermal electrons within a few tens of the Schwartzschild radius can account for low-frequency spectra below the critical frequency $\nu_{c}\approx 10^{12}$ Hz. Above the critical frequency, the synchrotron self-Compton emission by thermal electrons can account for variable emissions in recent near-infrared observations. In contrast to the previous study by Ohsuga et al. (2005), we found that the X-ray spectra by Bremsstrahlung emission of thermal electrons for the different mass accretion rates can be consistent with both the flaring state and the quiescent state of Sgr A* observed by {\it Chandra}., Comment: 8 pages, 4 figures, submitted to MNRAS

The supercritical disk accretion flow with radiatively driven outflows is studied based on two-dimensional radiation-hydrodynamic simulations for a wide range of the mass input rate, $\dot{M}_{\rm input}$, which is the mass supplied from the outer region to the disk per unit time. The $\alpha$-prescription is adopted for the viscosity. We employ $\alpha=0.5$, as well as $\alpha=0.1$ for $\dot{M}_{\rm input}\ge 3\times 10^2L_{\rm E}/c^2$ and only $\alpha=0.5$ for $\dot{M}_{\rm input}\le 10^2L_{\rm E}/c^2$, where $L_{\rm E}$ is the Eddington luminosity and $c$ is the speed of light. The quasi-steady disk and radiately driven outflows form in the case in which the mass input rate highly exceeds the critical rate, $\dot{M}_{\rm input}>3\times 10^2 L_{\rm E}/c^2$. Then, the disk luminosity as well as the kinetic energy output rate by the outflow exceeds the Eddington luminosity. The moderately supercritical disk, $\dot{M}_{\rm input}\sim 10-10^2 L_{\rm E}/c^2$, exhibits limit-cycle oscillations. The disk luminosity goes up and down across the Eddington luminosity, and the radiatively driven outflows intermittently appear. The time averaged mass, momentum, and kinetic energy output rates by the outflow as well as the disk luminosity increase with increase of the mass input rate, $\propto \dot{M}_{\rm input}^{0.7-1.0}$ for $\alpha=0.5$ and $\propto \dot{M}_{\rm input}^{0.4-0.6}$ for $\alpha=0.1$. Our numerical simulations show that the radiatively driven outflow model for the correlation between black hole mass and bulge velocity dispersion proposed by \citeauthor{SR98} and \citeauthor{King03} is successful if $\dot{M}_{\rm input}c^2/L_{\rm E} \sim$ a few 10 ($\alpha=0.5$) or $\gsim$ a few ($\alpha=0.1$)., Comment: 7 pages, 5 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ

Recently, the issue of the role of the Eddington limit in accretion discs became a matter of debate. While the classical (spherical) Eddington limit is certainly an over-simplification, it is not really clear how to treat it in a flattened structure like an accretion disc. We calculate the critical accretion rates and resulting disc luminosities for various disc models corresponding to the classical Eddington limit by equating the attractive and repulsive forces locally. We also discuss the observational appearance of such highly accreting systems by analyzing their spectral energy distributions. Our calculations indicate that the allowed mass accretion rates differ considerably from what one expects by applying the Eddington limit in its classical form, while the luminosities only weakly exceed their classical equivalent. Depending on the orientation of the disc relative to the observer, mild relativistic beaming turns out to have an important influence on the disc spectra. Thus, possible super-Eddington accretion, combined with mild relativistic beaming, supports the idea that ultraluminous X-ray sources host stellar mass black holes and accounts partially for the observed high temperatures of these objects., Comment: to appear in "Black Holes: from Stars to Galaxies" Proceedings IAU Symp. No. 238, eds. V. Karas & G. Matt; 4 pages, 2 figures, needs iaus.cls

Spectral properties of super-Eddington accretion flows are investigated by means of a parallel line-of-sight calculation. The subjacent model, taken from two-dimensional radiation hydrodynamic simulations by Ohsuga et al. (2005), consists of a disc accretion region and an extended atmosphere with high velocity outflows. The non-gray radiative transfer equation is solved, including relativistic effects, by applying the FLD approximation. The calculated spectrum is composed of a thermal, blackbody-like emission from the disc which depends sensitively on the inclination angle, and of high energy X-ray and gamma-ray emission from the atmosphere. We find mild beaming effects in the thermal radiation for small inclination angles. If we compare the face-on case with the edge-on case, the average photon energy is larger by a factor of ~1.7 due mainly to Doppler boosting, while the photon number density is larger by a factor of ~3.7 due mainly to anisotropic matter distribution around the central black hole. This gives an explanation for the observed X-ray temperatures of ULXs which are too high to be explained in the framework of intermediate-mass black holes. While the main features of the thermal spectral component are consistent with more detailed calculations of slim accretion discs, the atmosphere induces major changes in the high-energy part, which cannot be reproduced by existing models. In order to interpret observational data properly, simple approaches like the Eddington-Barbier approximation cannot be applied., Comment: 10 pages, 8 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

We investigate the time evolution of luminous accretion disks around black holes, conducting the two-dimensional radiation-hydrodynamic simulations. We adopt the alpha prescription for the viscosity. The radial-azimuthal component of viscous stress tensor is assumed to be proportional to the total pressure in the optically thick region, while the gas pressure in the optically thin regime. The viscosity parameter, alpha, is taken to be 0.1. We find the limit-cycle variation in luminosity between high and low states. When we set the mass input rate from the outer disk boundary to be 100 L_E/c^2, the luminosity suddenly rises from 0.3L_E to 2L_E, where L_E is the Eddington luminosity. It decays after retaining high value for about 40 s. Our numerical results can explain the variation amplitude and duration of the recurrent outbursts observed in microquasar, GRS 1915+105. We show that the multi-dimensional effects play an important role in the high-luminosity state. In this state, the outflow is driven by the strong radiation force, and some part of radiation energy dissipated inside the disk is swallowed by the black hole due to the photon-trapping effects. This trapped luminosity is comparable to the disk luminosity. We also calculate two more cases: one with a much larger accretion rate than the critical value for the instability and the other with the viscous stress tensor being proportional to the gas pressure only even when the radiation pressure is dominant. We find no quasi-periodic light variations in these cases. This confirms that the limit-cycle behavior found in the simulations is caused by the disk instability., Comment: 6 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ (ApJ 01 April 2006, v640, 2 issue)

We investigate the dependence of the viewing angle in supercritical accretion flows and discuss the observational implications of galactic black-hole candidates and ultraluminous X-ray sources. When the mass accretion rate exceeds the critical rate, then the shape of the disk is geometrically thick due to the enhanced radiation pressure. The model spectra of supercritical accretion flows strongly depend on the inclination angle. Because the outer disk blocks the emission from the disk inner region for high inclination angle. We also find that the spectral properties of low-inclination angle and low accretion-rate disks are very similar to those of high-inclination and high accretion rate disks. That is, if an object has a high inclination and high accretion rate, such a system suffers from self-occultation and the spectrum will be extremely soft. Therefore, we cannot discriminate these differences from spectrum shapes only. Conversely, if we use the self-occultation properties, we could constrain the inclination angle of the system. We suggest that some observed high temperature ultraluminous X-ray sources have near face-on geometry, i < 40, and Galactic black hole candidate, XTE J1550-564, possesses relatively high-inclination angles, i > 60., Comment: 13 pages, 6 figures, accepted for publication in PASJ

The quasi-steady structure of super-critical accretion flows around a black hole is studied based on the two-dimensional radiation-hydrodynamical (2D-RHD) simulations. The super-critical flow is composed of two parts: the disk region and the outflow regions above and below the disk. Within the disk region the circular motion as well as the patchy density structure are observed, which is caused by Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and probably by convection. The mass-accretion rate decreases inward, roughly in proportion to the radius, and the remaining part of the disk material leaves the disk to form outflow because of strong radiation pressure force. We confirm that photon trapping plays an important role within the disk. Thus, matter can fall onto the black hole at a rate exceeding the Eddington rate. The emission is highly anisotropic and moderately collimated so that the apparent luminosity can exceed the Eddington luminosity by a factor of a few in the face-on view. The mass-accretion rate onto the black hole increases with increase of the absorption opacity (metalicity) of the accreting matter. This implies that the black hole tends to grow up faster in the metal rich regions as in starburst galaxies or star-forming regions., Comment: 16 pages, 12 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ (Volume 628, July 20, 2005 issue)

In spite of a large number of global three-dimensional (3D) magneto-hydrodynamical (MHD) simulations of accretion flows and jets being made recently, their astrophysical relevance for realistic situations is not well known. In order to examine to what extent the simulated MHD flows can account for the observed spectral energy distribution (SED) of Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*), for the first time we calculate the emergent spectra from 3D MHD flows in a wide range of wavelengths (from radio to X-ray) by solving the 3D radiative transfer equations. We use the simulation data by Kato, Mineshige, and Shibata (2004) and perform Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations, in which synchrotron emission/absorption, free-free emission/absorption, and Compton/inverse Compton scattering are taken into account. We assume two temperature plasmas and calculate electron temperatures by solving the electron energy equation. Only thermal electrons are considered. It is found that the 3D MHD flow generally over-produces X-rays by means of bremsstrahlung radiation from the regions at large radii. A flatter density profile, r^{-a} with a<1, than that of the advection-dominated accretion flow (ADAF), r^{-3/2}, is the main reason for this. If we restrict the size of the emission region to be as small as 10r_s, where r_s is the Schwarzschild radius, the MHD model can reproduce the basic features of the observed SED of Sgr A* during its flaring state. Yet, the spectrum in the quiescent state remains to be understood. We also calculate the time-dependent spectral changes, finding that the fluxes fluctuate in a wide range of the frequency and the flux at each wavelength does not always vary coherently., Comment: 8 pages, 7 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ (Volume 627, July 10, 2005 issue)

We investigate the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the supercritical disk accretion flows around black holes by solving the multi-frequency zeroth moment equation of the radiation transfer equation under the flux-limited diffusion approximation as well as the energy equation of gas. Special attention is paid to the photon-trapping effects, the effects that photons are trapped within accretion flow and are swallowed by a black hole, with little being radiated away. It is found that when flow luminosity is below about twice the Eddington luminosity (L<2L_E) photon trapping is ineffective and the SED shifts to the higher-energy side as L increases. The peak frequency at which the SED reaches its peak becomes at maximum three times higher than that given by the standard-disk model, which might resolve the so-called 'too hot accretion disk problem.' When L>2L_E, in contrast the peak frequency of the SED tends to decrease with increase of mass-accretion rate. This is due to enhanced photon-trapping. Since high-energy photons are generated near the equatorial plane, they can be more effectively trapped in flow than low-energy ones and, hence, the high energy part of radiation is suppressed. Finally, the observed time variation of IC 342 S1, which is an ultraluminous X-ray source, in the X-ray HR diagram can be explained by the modulation of the mass accretion rate. In comparison with the observational data, we estimate the mass of black hole in IC 342 S1 is around 100 solar mass., Comment: 8 pages, 7 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ (Volume 596, October 10, 2003 issue)

We investigate a corona coupled with underlying disk through magnetic field and radiation field, and present emergent spectra calculated from Monte Carlo simulations. The spectra are determined for given black-hole mass and accretion rate. We find two types of solutions corresponding for hard spectrum and soft spectrum. In the hard-spectrum solution, the accretion energy is dominantly dissipated in the corona, supporting a strong corona above a cool disk; The hard X-ray spectral indices are around 1.1, same for different accretion rates. In the soft-spectrum solution, the accretion energy is mainly dissipated in the disk. The coronal temperature and density are quite low. Consequently, the spectra are dominated by the disk radiation peaking at UV and soft X-rays. For low-luminosity systems, there exists only the solution of hard spectra; While for high-luminosity systems, there exist both solutions of hard and soft spectra. For middle-luminosity systems, besides the hard spectra, moderately soft spectra composed of an inner soft-spectrum solution and an outer hard-spectrum solution may occur, the softness of which increases with increasing luminosity. The hard spectra are close to the observed spectra in Seyfert galaxies and radio-quiet QSOs. The composite spectra may account for the diversity of broad band spectra observed in narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxies., Comment: 25 pages including 8 figures. To appear in ApJ, Vol.587