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World Digital Preservation Day is an annual celebration of digital preservation hosted by the Digital Preservation Coalition. This is a series of short lightning talks by Virginia Tech University Libraries personnel on various digital preservation topics and Library projects. For more info, please visit the WDPD LibGuide: https://guides.lib.vt.edu/digipres/wdpd Presenters: Shane Coleman, Data Curator: "Teaching Students the Value of Historical Maps" Kira Dietz, Assistant Director, Special Collections and University Archives: "The History of Women at Virginia Tech: A Digital Tale of Access (and Preservation!)" Corinne Guimont, Digital Scholarship Coordinator: "Redlining Virginia Preservation Project" Alex Kinnaman, Digital Preservation Coordinator: "CoreTrustSeal Repository Certification" Luke Menzies, Digital Preservation Technologist: "Digital Preservation & Social Justice" Wen Ng, Digital Collections Librarian: "Southwest Virginia Digital Archive" Todd Ogle, Executive Director, ARIES: "Immersive Archaeology" Maureen Saverot, 3D Imaging Specialist: "Photogrammetry & 3D Insects" James Tuttle, Associate Director, Digital Libraries: "Digital Libraries Platform Preservation Strategy

We propose a system which integrates a high-fidelity immersive virtual environment based on ground-truth 3D scanning data from archaeological sites augmented with ethnohistoric data in the form of archival records, photos, models of artifacts, prior publications and reports, etc. for in virtuo analysis of corroborating evidence and the results of fieldwork. The post-excavation analysis phase is typically the most time-consuming aspect of the archaeology process. The proposed Immersive Archaeology System would primarily contribute to this post-excavation phase, connecting to and drawing together potentially relevant ethnohistoric data from archival stores that can be rapidly identified and presented to the archaeologist for analysis and interpretation of a site and its artifacts. This in turn could enable more reflexive archaeological practices wherein both field- and lab-based scientists are in close and regular collaboration via the immersive environment. Additional benefits of the adoption a system could include the development of curated virtual environments that could be employed in K-20 learning environments to engage learners in the analytical component of archaeology.

Virtual environments are visually dominant systems. It seems that individuals" visual perception abilities would have an effect on their performance in a virtual environment. One such visual perception ability that seems a logical fit for study in virtual environments is that of disembedding ability. Disembedding ability is one part of a greater psychological construct known as field dependence. This research investigates how the learner characteristic of field dependence affects learning outcomes in virtual environments In order to examine the effect of virtual environments on recall among learners of differing levels of field dependence, the following specific questions and hypotheses were formed: 1) Does the use of virtual environments affect participants" performance in a task of recall? 2) Do participants of different levels of field dependence perform differently on a task of recall when presented with virtual environments versus static images? 3) Do field-dependent participants score higher on a test of recall when presented with a virtual environment? An experimental design using a sample of Virginia Tech students was employed in this study. The analysis consisted of a 2 X 2 factorial design with main effects for two levels of field dependence (field dependent and field independent), two levels of image representation (virtual environment versus static images), and interaction effects between the two factors. The factorial analysis showed no significant difference in recall test scores for the two treatments. Likewise, there was no significant difference in test scores for field dependent participants who received the virtual-environment treatment versus the static-image treatment. However, a significant interaction existed between field dependence and treatment type, favoring the field-independent participants who received the virtual-environment treatment. It can be concluded from this study that virtual environments have no effect on the recall ability of field-dependent learners. Further research might focus on other individual differences, such as spatial ability, that may have an effect on field-dependent learners" strategies for working in a virtual environment. Ph. D.

Immersive and interactive storytelling in virtual reality (VR) is an emerging creative practice that has been thriving in recent years. Educational applications using immersive VR storytelling to explain complex science concepts have very promising pedagogical benefits because on the one hand, storytelling breaks down the complexity of science concepts by bridging them to people's everyday experiences and familiar cognitive models, and on the other hand, the learning process is further reinforced through rich interactivity afforded by the VR experiences. However, it is unclear how different amounts of storytelling and interactivity in an interactive VR storytelling experience may affect learning outcomes due to a paucity of literature on educational VR storytelling research. This dissertation aims to add to the literature through an exploration of interactivity and essential storytelling elements in educational VR storytelling experiences and their impact on learning. We designed a working prototype of interactive and immersive VR storytelling experience, Immunology VR, that focuses on the learning of specific immunology concepts: neutrophil transmigration and killing mechanisms. Based on the initial prototype, we further developed six variations that allowed us to conduct two major experiments below. Our first experiment explored designs of three different levels of interactivity, low, medium, and high, in the VR storytelling experiences and their effects on immunology learning. We found subjective evidence to support our research hypothesis that increased level of interactivity will lead to increased engagement in VR learning. Our finding suggests that interactivity is a key design element in VR learning design for effective learning and should be considered in all VR learning applications. Our second experiment focused on the designs of the level of storytelling richness and their effects on learning. Specifically, we designed three storytelling conditions, minimal storytelling, basic storytelling, and advanced storytelling, and investigated how each of them affected immunology learning. Subjective evidence from our user interview data suggested that participants from higher levels of storytelling conditions were more likely to perceive storytelling elements as the most useful features in the VR experience that helped with their learning. It is also suggested that higher levels of richness in essential storytelling elements may trigger certain emotions and empathy in more users and positively affect their learning. Doctor of Philosophy Immersive and interactive storytelling in virtual reality (VR) is an emerging creative practice that has been thriving in recent years. Educational applications using immersive VR storytelling to explain complex science concepts have very promising pedagogical benefits because on the one hand, storytelling breaks down the complexity of science concepts by bridging them to people's everyday experiences and familiar cognitive models, and on the other hand, the learning process is further reinforced through rich interactivity provided by the VR experiences. However, it is unclear how different amounts of storytelling and interactivity setup in an interactive VR storytelling experience may affect learning outcomes due to a paucity of literature on educational VR storytelling research. In this dissertation, we explored interactivity and essential storytelling elements in educational VR storytelling experiences and their impact on learning.

History education is important, as it provides context for current events today. Cultural heritage sites, such as historic buildings, ruins, or archaeological digs can provide a glimpse into the past. The use of different technologies, including augmented and virtual reality, to teach history has expanded. Augmented reality (AR) in particular can be used to enhance real artifacts and places to allow for deeper understanding. However, the experiences born out of these efforts primarily aim to enhance museum visits and are presented as handheld experiences on smartphones or tablets. The use of head-worn augmented reality for on-site history education is a gap. There is a need to examine how on-site historical experiences should be designed for AR headsets. This work aims to explore best practices of creating such experiences through a case study on the Solitude AR Tour. Additionally comparisons between designing for head-worn AR and handheld AR are presented. Master of Science There is a need for the general public to be informed on historical events which have shaped the present day. Informal education through museums or guided tours around historical sites provides an engaging method for people to become more knowledgeable on the details of a time period or a place's past. The use of augmented reality, which is the enhancement of the real-world through virtual content visible through some sort of display such as a smartphone, has been applied to history education in these settings. The educational apps created focus on adding onto museum exhibits, rather than historical locations such as buildings or other structures. Additionally they have focused on using smartphones or tablets as the medium for virtual content, rather than headsets, which involves wearing a display rather than holding one. This work aims to address the lack of headset-based, on-site history experiences by posing questions about what methods work best for designing such an app. Comparisons to handheld design are also made to provide information on how the approach differs.

"Fabricated Preservation" aims to push the boundaries with traditional theses, creating a multi-layered experience that blends fact and fiction through a performance that centers around environmental storytelling in virtual reality. The experience questions the balance of theatrical elements in traditional storytelling which forefront text and human characters over architecture, props, and environment, and critically examines how an environment can play a crucial role in a narrative. The narrative itself focuses on one question: if a genealogy company had access to past environments via time travel, what new information could we learn about our ancestors? The normal perceptions of a "game" are challenged, introducing real world elements to trick the audience and subtly influence how they navigate a virtual space. A complex fictional character is introduced through the performance and developed through the environment, with the hopes that the audience will gain some emotion toward them: either connecting with the character as if they were a close friend, or feeling unsettled that they observed the character's realistic personal space. This voyeuristic theme weaves its way through each layer of the storytelling, poking at the audience's morals with the hopes that they will question the experience around them. Above all, the main goal of Fabricated Preservation is to challenge the audience to mentally engage with the virtual experience, by paying attention to the details of their environment and constructing their own version of a narrative from those details. Master of Fine Arts Fabricated Preservation examines how an environment can play a crucial role in a narrative. An environmental story was created that centers around a fictional character, influenced by a close friend's life. Virtual reality was used to allow the audience to immerse themselves more within a virtual bedroom environment, using virtual props to convey the personality of the character. A fictional genealogy company called The Fifth Turning was also created to convey that environmental story through a different perspective to the audience. There are two main stories that go hand in hand with this experience: the primary story is the life of a college girl in the 1990s. The secondary story is of the fictional company, the Fifth Turning, which uses time travel technology to access the bedroom environment of the college girl to obtain more personalized genealogy information.

This study develops a computer-based interactive content design framework to guide the design of metacognitive scaffolds in ill-structured problem-solving instruction. It adopts Type II design and development research approach to create a comprehensive and generalizable instructional design framework. The framework was composed by synthesizing research and practical literature, and then evaluated by experts in related fields. The completed framework includes metacognitive strategies, instructional design strategies, interactive media types, question prompts, and feedback. Instructional designers, instructors, and other key stakeholders could follow the guidelines proposed in this framework to create metacognitive-based ill-structured problem-solving instruction using e-Learning authoring tools. On one hand, this study bridges the gap between theory and practice; on the other hand, it adds to literature in media research with focusing on utilizing various media types to create effective learning materials. Doctor of Philosophy This study aims to develop an interactive content design framework to guide the design of metacognitive scaffolds in ill-structured problem-solving instruction. It applies the Type II design and development research method. The framework was proposed by synthesizing pertinent literature, and then evaluated by experts in related fields. The completed framework includes metacognitive strategies, instructional design strategies, interactive media types, question prompts, and feedback. Instructional designers, instructors, and other key stakeholders could follow the guidelines to create computer-mediated instruction using e-Learning authoring tools. On one hand, this study bridges the gap between theory and practice; on the other hand, it adds to literature in media research with implementing various media types to create effective learning materials.

Researchers and GIS analysts have used Aerial Laser Scanning (ALS) data to generate Digital Terrain Models (DTM) since the 1990s, and various algorithms developed for ground point extraction have been proposed based on the characteristics of ALS data. However, Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) data, which might be a better indicator of ground morphological features under dense tree canopies and more accessible for small areas, have been long ignored. In this research, the aim was to evaluate if TLS data were as qualified as ALS to serve as a source of a DTM. To achieve this goal, there were three steps: acquiring and aligning ALS and TLS of the same region, applying ground filters on both of the data sets, and comparing the results. Our research area was a 100m by 140m region of grass, weeds and small trees along Strouble's Creek on the Virginia Tech campus. Four popular ground filter tools (ArcGIS, LASTools, PDAL, MCC) were applied to both ALS and TLS data. The output ground point clouds were then compared with a DTM generated from ALS data of the same region. Among the four ground filter tools employed in this research, the distances from TLS ground points to the ALS ground surface were no more than 0.06m with standard deviations less than 0.3m. The results indicated that the differences between the ground extracted from TLS and that extracted from ALS were subtle. The conclusion is that Digital Terrain Models (DTM) generated from TLS data are valid. Master of Science Elevation is one of the most basic data for researches such as flood prediction and land planning in the field of geography, agriculture, forestry, etc. The most common elevation data that could be downloaded from the internet were acquired from field measurements or satellites. However, the finest grained of that kind of data is 1/3m and errors can be introduced by ground objects such as trees and buildings. To acquire more accurate and pure-ground elevation data (also called Digital Terrain Models (DTM)), Researchers and GIS analysts introduced laser scanners for small area geographical research. For land surface data collection, researchers usually fly a drone with laser scanner (ALS) to derive the data underneath, which could be blocked by ground objects. An alternative way is to place the laser scanner on a tripod on the ground (TLS), which provides more data for ground morphological features under dense tree canopies and better precision. As ALS and TLS collect data from different perspectives, the coverage of a ground area can be different. As most of the ground extraction algorithm were designed for ALS data, their performance on TLS data hasn’t been fully tested yet. Our research area was a 100m by 140m region of grass, weeds and small trees along Strouble’s Creek on the Virginia Tech campus. Four popular ground filter tools (ArcGIS, LASTools, PDAL, MCC) were applied to both ALS and TLS data. The output ground point clouds were then compared with a ground surface generated from ALS data of the same region. Among the four ground filter tools employed in this research, the distances from TLS ground points to the ALS ground surface were no more than 0.06m with standard deviations less than 0.3m. The results indicated that the differences between the ground extracted from TLS and that extracted from ALS were subtle. The conclusion is that Digital Terrain Models (DTM) generated from TLS data are valid.

Alchemically is an educational role-playing game that functions as a classroom aid for boosting middle school and high school students' memorization of molecular formulas and molecule's attributes. The game implements several diverse teaching methodologies, including trial and error, practice and feedback, and the presentation of information from audio and visual cues. It also motivates students to continue learning through both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. Student players craft molecules by choosing and placing atoms into a crafting table, then bonding them together. To help players build molecules, players can reference a journal that includes images, diagrams, and factual information on the molecules included in the game. Master of Fine Arts Alchemically is an educational role-playing game that functions as a classroom aid for boosting middle school and high school students’ memorization of molecular formulas and molecule’s attributes. The game implements several diverse teaching methodologies, including trial and error, practice and feedback, and the presentation of information from audio and visual cues. It also motivates students to continue learning through both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. Student players craft molecules by choosing and placing atoms into a crafting table, then bonding them together. To help players build molecules, players can reference a journal that includes images, diagrams, and factual information on the molecules included in the game.

Museums are rich and complex learning experiences, using a variety of interactive approaches to engage their audiences. However, the largely unstructured nature of free-choice learning calls for alternative approaches that can effectively engage groups of school age students with diverse cultural backgrounds. In these informal learning spaces employing digital content, classroom-size student groups do not get adequate exposure to content and if they do, it is either through individual interactions with digital exhibits or in a passive style instruction offered by a museum docent to the whole group. This research aims to identify which elements of collocated group collaboration, virtual environments, and serious games can be leveraged for an enhanced learning experience for small and large groups of middle school students. We created a conceptual framework based on the Contextual Model of Learning in museums (John H. Falk and Dierking, 2000) and the most effective educational elements of Virtual Environments (VEs) and Serious Games, in order to increase engagement and social presence and facilitate learning. We then developed C-OLiVE (Collaborative Orchestrated Learning in Virtual Environments), an interactive virtual learning environment supporting group collaboration, which we used as a testbed to respond to our research questions. Our overall hypothesis is that synchronous, collocated, group collaboration will afford greater learning and an improved game experience compared to the conventional approaches used in these spaces so far. We ran three experiments and a case study with 790 students in private and public middle schools, summer camps, and museums both in the US and in Greece. Findings partly supported our hypothesis, mainly during our small group interaction experiments, in which simultaneous interaction of students was found to be associated with increased learning. Guidance of a passive experience was effective in facilitating the more cognitively challenged group of students in a Greek museum. Our audience interaction studies revealed increased retention of information two days after the game. Agency was found to significantly predict learning in all our studies. Engagement and social presence were mostly correlated with higher levels of involvement and agency in the game. Ph. D.

Spatial mapping or environment mapping is the process of exploring a real world environment and creating its digital representation. To create convincing mixed reality programs, an environment mapping device must be able to detect a user's position and map the user's environment. Currently available commercial spatial mapping devices mostly use infrared camera to obtain a depth map which is effective only for short to medium distances (3-4 meters). This work describes an extension to the existing environment mapping devices and techniques to enable mapping of larger architectural environments using a combination of a camera, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), and Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) devices supported by sensor fusion and computer vision techniques. There are three main parts to the proposed system. The first part is data collection and data fusion using embedded hardware, the second part is data processing (segmentation) and the third part is creating a geometry mesh of the environment. The developed system was evaluated against its ability to determine the dimension of the room and of objects within the room. This low cost system can significantly expand the mapping range of the existing mixed reality devices such as Microsoft HoloLens device. Master of Science

This study explored the feasibility and practicability of designing and developing a Knowledge Assessment System (KAS) for assessing different types of knowledge as defined in the revision of Bloom's Taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001). The KAS created as a result of this study is based on concept maps and employs two differential weighting approaches. It is a developmental study, which includes the design phase, development phase and evaluation phase. The general software system design model (Sommerville, 2009) was adopted to guide the design of the Knowledge Assessment System based on its procedures, including system requirements analysis, architecture design, component design, interface design, and database design. The assessment criteria in this system are designed to be proposition-based and consist of either a non-weighting approach or a weighting approach, which can help provide instructors with flexible assessing methods as well as help them obtain a whole picture of what kinds of knowledge their students have grasped and to what extent the students have mastered that knowledge, based on the student-created concept maps. The two differential weighting approaches initially compare student-created concept maps with expert maps stored in the system. Because some correct propositions in student concept maps may be not included in the initial expert concept maps, the system is designed to continually refine the assessment criterion by inspecting and evaluating the correctness of the propositions in the student-created concept maps and adding the results to the system's database. The current system is able to assess three types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, and procedural, all of which are defined in the revision of Bloom's Taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001). The assessment process begins with the assignment of different types of concept map tasks entered and stored in the Knowledge Assessment System. Following by student completion of the tasks and submission of a concept map, the submitted concept map is compared to the criteria stored in the system and a performance report is generated. The research results show that the Knowledge Assessment System based on concept maps and two differential weighting approaches can act as a useful tool for assessing students' factual, conceptual and procedural knowledge based on their concept maps. Ph. D.

This study explored the design and development of an electronic performance enhancement tool that can assist a person with limited programming skills to create a variety of simple customized information management websites. In particular, this study was modeled after needs within an Instruction Technology department in which individuals were able to create pre-functional web pages with various elements such as textboxes and dropdown menus but lacked the programming skills necessary to add functionality to these web forms. Skilled programmers could add functionality to these pre-functioning web forms or create customized information management websites from scratch. However, programmers are not always available when needed. At the time of this study, there was no readily available way for persons to create customized information management websites without the services of a programmer or without needing to learn programming skills themselves. This study sought to determine what functionalities, characteristics and capabilities could be included in an electronic performance enhancement tool to assist non-programmers to create simple customized information management websites and how a tool with such functionalities, characteristics and capabilities could be designed and developed. A prototype version of such tool (named the Form And DataBase Interaction Tool or "FADBIT") was designed and developed in this study. This tool asks users who have created simple pre-functional web forms to answer a series of questions related to those webforms. Given the user's responses to these questions, this tool is able to form a metalanguage representation of the user's intentions for the web form and can translate this representation into useful programming code to add the desired functionality. The tool was successfully designed and developed using a generalized modular framework, and a Create-Adapt-Generalize model, with each module addressing one or more patterns common to web programming. The prototype tool successfully allowed non-programmers to create functional information websites for two structured evaluation projects, and achieved some level of success and encountered some difficulties with an unstructured project. Proposed modifications and extensions to the tool to address the difficulties encountered are presented. Ph. D.

This dissertation explores the feasibility of employing software agent technology to support large-scale assessment. The research included the design, development, and evaluation of the Assessment Agent System for assessing comprehensive understanding based on concept maps. The system was designed by following an agent-oriented software design method. The Assessment Agent System is composed of five types of software agents: instructor agent, student agent, management agent, assessment agent, and reporting agent. Each of these agents was designed to possess different capabilities. Software agents in the system, through communication and cooperation, collectively provide the functionalities of user-system interaction, user management, task authoring and management, assessment delivery, task presentation, response collection, automatic assessing with feedback, and reporting. Through the process of design, development, and evaluation of the Assessment Agent System, this study demonstrates an approach that employs an agent-oriented software design method to produce sophisticated educational software applications. Furthermore, this study explored the concept map assessing method for the Assessment Agent System. When node terms and linking phrases are provided, assessing student concept maps can be automated by comparing student concept maps with assessment criteria, proposition by proposition. However, the usefulness of the proposition-comparing method depends heavily on the accuracy and thoroughness of the criterion propositions. Therefore, assessment criteria need to be continually refined and improved through examining student-created propositions. Ph. D.

Stereographic virtual environments display data in such a way that a user perceives objects within the displayed environment to be separated in depth from the display itself. The effectiveness of stereographic virtual environments as learning tools has been evaluated relative to factors such as multidimensional cues, user interaction, and learner characteristics. This study has examined the relationship between two evaluative factors: the presence of stereographic depth cues and field dependence, a learner characteristic associated with performance on visual tasks. Adult learners were identified on a field dependence continuum based on scores on the Group Embedded Figures Test. Each student received instruction related to the heart using stereographic materials or nonstereographic materials, depending on assignment to treatment group. All participants were given two tests, identification and terminology, following this instruction. The scores on the combination of these tests, denoted as the Modified Total Criterion Test (MTCT), represented the level of visual recall relative to the instructional materials reviewed. Analyses of variance revealed an interaction effect between the level of field dependence and the presence of stereographic depth cues within a virtual environment such that field independent participants scored higher on tests of visual recall within stereographic conditions versus nonstereographic conditions and field dependent participants scored lower within stereographic conditions versus nonstereographic conditions. Ph. D.

The 35,882 former offenders released by Virginia's Department of Corrections during the period of July 1, 1998, through June 30, 2002, are profiled using data provided by Virginia's Department of Corrections and Department of Correctional Education as well as the Virginia Employment Commission. Demographic characteristics of recidivating and non-recidivating former offenders released during this period, with sub-groupings to include gender, race, age, employment status, earnings, employment stability, and educational completion, as defined in the operational definitions of the study, are detailed, and the researcher's observations are noted. Ph. D.