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Although Gold Coast Africans in the pre-colonial period believed that supernatural forces were the final causes of diseases, they were also clearly aware of the health implications of indiscriminate defecation and other environmental pollutants. Two types of latrines existed in the Gold Coast to displace excrement beyond the healthful space of the community. One existed inside the house, which European writers referred to as privy huts. The second type was communal latrines located on the outskirts of the town boundary. Irrespective of the true conditions, European adventurers and later colonial officials viewed the Gold Coast through the prism of the racial politics of the "civilizing mission." They conceived toileting techniques and practices as well as the management of excrement among Africans as "primitive," unhygienic, and therefore, anathema to "civilization." This article examines the provision of latrines and the management and disposal of human excrement in the southern Gold Coast during the colonial period. It demonstrates that despite European claims to superior toileting techniques, latrines provided by the colonial administration before the twentieth century were mostly ad hoc , inadequate, very basic, and inefficient. Similarly, colonial technologies for disposing excrement proved inefficient. Thus, the management of human waste in the Gold Coast posed technocratic barriers to public health and highlighted the limits of colonial measures and technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waste volatile compounds, such as butyric acid, generated from pit latrines may cause discomfort to pit latrine users and they have undesirable impacts on sanitation promotion efforts and public health. The purpose of this work was to isolate and identify highly efficient deodorant butyric acid bacteria and investigate their feasibility of biologically removing butyric acid from enriched liquid medium under different pH conditions. The determination of the ability of these bacterial strains on removal of butyric acid was at the concentration of 1000 mgL-1 in MSM. The experiment was designed in a batch reactor under aerobic condition by shaking in a temperature controlled incubator at orbital shaking speed of 110 rpm and of 30 °C and initial pH was adjusted to 7.0. The results showed that these bacterial strains were identified as Bacillus cereus, Lysinibacillus fusiformis, Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus methylotrophicus. The bacterial strains were capable of growth and degrading butyric acid at a wide range of initial pH values but the optimal growth and butyric acid degradation was achieved at neutral pH. Complete butyric acid degradation was achieved within 20-24 h. The bacterial strains have proved to be potential candidates for the development of biodeodorization systems for pit latrines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This work aims at characterizing the rheological properties of faecal sludge from Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines and their implication on pit emptying. Faecal sludge was sampled from 3 pit latrines located in the eThekwini Municipality (Durban, South Africa). Samples were taken at different positions within the pit. For each of the samples, measurements in the rheometer in triplicates were performed in order to determine their rheological properties, and their moisture and ash content were measured also in triplicates. Experiments in the rheometer were performed for samples for which its moisture content was modified. In order to better understand the influence of water addition into the pit. During pit emptying, calculations were carried out from the experimental data, based in the criteria set in the Omni-Ingestor initiative, carried out by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Faecal sludge exhibited a shear thinning behaviour, i.e. a decrease in viscosity with increasing shear rate, and presented a yield stress comprised between 500 to 1000 Pa. This needs to be surpassed in order to overcome the elastic resistance of the sludge to flow. Similar viscosities were found for the samples from the different pits, irrespective of the position within the pit, except for the sample from the bottom of one of the pits for which it was not possible to induce a flow. This sample had a considerably lower moisture content (67% wet basis) compared to the other samples (around 80% wet basis), probably due to a higher biodegradation as it was the most aged sludge in the pit. According to the experimental results and calculations, the pumping requirements during pit emptying will decrease drastically by increasing the moisture content of the sludge. The addition of water into the pit would then facilitate the pit emptying operation by reducing the head and power required for pumping. However, this practice would require employing considerable amounts of water and handling higher volumes of sludge, which would lead to longer pit emptying times and increase the difficulty of the operation. For example, increasing the moisture content of the sludge from 75 to 90% will reduce the head and power of the pump by a factor 100, but will triplicate the amount of water in the sludge and, consequently, the time for pit emptying. Therefore, a compromise has to be made between increasing the pumping feasibility and adding water to the pit. Highlights • The rheological properties of faecal sludge from pit latrines were characterized. • Faecal sludge showed a shear thinning behaviour with a yield stress. • Faecal sludge rheological characteristics were similar at different pit positions. • The rheological characteristics were similar for sludge from different pit latrines. • Adding water in the sludge decreases its viscosity and facilitates pit emptying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Land use change influences sanitation uptake in rural India. • Closure of open defecation grounds encourages latrine building and adoption. • Previously-built, durable latrines come into usage due to land pressures. • A geographical approach to sanitation research reveals key place-specific, socio-economic interconnections. • Sanitation policy can adapt to current land uses to facilitate open defecation free status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sanitation policies in India have primarily focused on infrastructure development, through building latrines and toilets. Given the persistence of open defecation in India despite such efforts, emphases on behavioral change interventions are crucial. We explore why and how the dual nature of purity and degradation in public and private spaces is relevant to such problems. In the context of sanitation and health policies in India, we propose an intervention that exploits social norms associated with purity via the use of religious imagery in public spaces as a deterrent for unhygienic sanitation behaviors. This intervention falls within the framework of nudging, which has received great emphasis in recent policy discussions. In the absence of empirical data on the intervention, this paper takes into account considerations of ethics, implications, cost, and scalability; suggestions on implementing the intervention at various levels of government are provided keeping in mind India’s socio-cultural context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrochemical systems are an attractive option for onsite latrine wastewater treatment due to their high efficiency and small footprint. While concerns remain over formation of toxic byproducts during treatment, rigorous studies examining byproduct formation are lacking. Experiments treating authentic latrine wastewater over variable treatment times, current densities, chloride concentrations, and anode materials were conducted to characterize byproducts and identify conditions that minimize their formation. Production of inorganic byproducts (chlorate and perchlorate) and indicator organic byproducts (haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes) during electrolysis dramatically exceeded recommendations for drinking water after one treatment cycle (~10-30?000 times), raising concerns for contamination of downstream water supplies. Stopping the reaction after ammonium was removed (i.e., the chlorination breakpoint) was a promising method to minimize byproduct formation without compromising disinfection and nutrient removal. Though treatment was accelerated at increased chloride concentrations and current densities, byproduct concentrations remained similar near the breakpoint. On TiO2/IrO2 anodes, haloacetic acids (up to ~50 µM) and chlorate (up to ~2 µM) were of most concern. Although boron-doped diamond anodes mineralized haloacetic acids after formation, high production rates of chlorate and perchlorate (up to ~4 and 25 µM) made them inferior to TiO2/IrO2 anodes in terms of toxic byproduct formation. Organic byproduct formation was similar during chemical chlorination and electrolysis of wastewater, suggesting that organic byproducts are formed by similar pathways in both cases (i.e., reactions with chloramines and free chlorine). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving access to sanitation is a global public health priority. Sufficient consumer demand is required for sanitation coverage to expand through private provision. To measure consumer demand for hygienic latrine platform products in rural Tanzania, we conducted a randomized, voucher-based real-money sales trial with 1638 households with unimproved latrines. We also evaluated multiple supply chain options to determine the costs of supplying latrine platform products to rural households. For concrete latrine SanPlats, 60% of households were willing to pay US$0.48 and 10% of households were willing to pay US$4.05, yet the average cost of supplying the SanPlat to households was US$7.51. Similarly, for plastic sanitary platforms, willingness-to-pay (WTP) dropped from almost 60% at a price of US$1.43 to 5% at a price of US$12.29, compared to an average supply cost of US$23.28. WTP was not significantly different between villages that had participated in the National Sanitation Campaign and those that had not. Randomized informational interventions, including hygiene data-sharing and peer-based exposure to latrine platform products, had minimal effects on WTP. In conclusion, current household demand for latrine platform products is too low to achieve national goals for improved sanitation coverage through fully commercial distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivation: Proper management of fecal sludge has significant positive health and environmental externalities. Most research on managing onsite sanitation so far either simulates the costs of, or the welfare effects from, managing sludge in situ in pit latrines. Thus, designing management strategies for onsite rural sanitation is challenging, because the actual costs of transporting sludge for treatment, and sources for financing these transport costs, are not well understood. Methods: In this paper we calculate the actual cost of sludge management from onsite latrines, and identify the contributions that latrine owners are willing to make to finance the costs. A spreadsheet-based model is used to identify a cost-effective transport option, and to calculate the cost per household. Then a double-bound contingent valuation method is used to elicit from pit-latrine owners their willingness-to-pay to have sludge transported away. This methodology is employed for the case of a rural subdistrict in Bangladesh called Bhaluka, a unit of administration at which sludge management services are being piloted by the Government of Bangladesh. Results: The typical sludge accumulation rate in Bhaluka is calculated at 0.11 liters/person/day and a typical latrine will need to be emptied approximately once every 3 to 4 years. The costs of emptying and transport are high; approximately USD 13 per emptying event (circa 14% of average monthly income); household contributions could cover around 47% of this cost. However, if costs were spread over time, the service would cost USD 4 per year per household, or USD 0.31 per month per household—comparable to current expenditures of rural households on telecommunications. Conclusion: This is one of few research papers that brings the costs of waste management together with financing of that cost, to provide evidence for an implementable solution. This framework can be used to identify cost effective sludge management options and private contributions towards that cost in other (context-specific) administrative areas where onsite sanitation is widespread. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on traveling through Australia's remote areas. Topics discussed include an outdoor toilet dunny in Australia, visit several places such as inlets, lakes and secluded Nelson Beach near Mogareeka, New South Wales and security provided by the technologies such as cell phones. Other topics include avoiding of television and cell phones on the trips.

We used a cluster-randomized field trial to evaluate training natural leaders (NLs) as an addition to a community-led total sanitation (CLTS) intervention in Ghana. NLs are motivated community members who influence their peers' behaviors during CLTS. The outcomes were latrine use and quality, which were assessed from surveys and direct observation. From October 2012, Plan International Ghana (Plan) implemented CLTS in 60 villages in three regions in Ghana. After 5 months, Plan trained eight NLs from a randomly selected half of the villages, then continued implementing CLTS in all villages for 12 more months. The NL training led to increased time spent on CLTS by community members, increased latrine construction, and a 19.9 percentage point reduction in open defecation (p < 0.001). The training had the largest impact in small, remote villages with low exposure to prior water and sanitation projects, and may be most effective in socially cohesive villages. For both interventions, latrines built during CLTS were less likely to be constructed of durable materials than pre-existing latrines, but were equally clean, and more often had handwashing materials. CLTS with NL training contributes to three parts of Goal 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals: eliminating open defecation, expanding capacity-building, and strengthening community participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pit latrine linings for emergency sanitation facilities require different performance criteria from those for pits used in longer-term development work. Various international initiatives are currently under way to develop new methods of supporting the pits used for latrines in emergencies, but before a solution can be found, the problem needs to be defined. Current field guidance lacks the level of detail required by humanitarian workers to construct durable pits in a timely manner. Consultations with international humanitarian field staff and UK-based geotechnical engineers were used in this research project to identify design, construction, and operational requirements of emergency pit-lining systems. However, rather than closely defined performance requirements, the study identified a wide range of criteria that need to be considered and clear distinctions between emergency and longer-term solutions. Latrines constructed in the initial stages of emergencies are likely to be communal, with long rectangular pits that require frequent emptying. Current knowledge of suitable pit support methods is sufficient to provide a limited range of standard designs that could be selected to meet local requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Open defecation is practised by over 600 million people in India and there is a strong political drive to eliminate this through the provision of on-site sanitation in rural areas. However, there are concerns that the subsequent leaching of excreta from subsurface storage could be adversely impacting underlying groundwater resources upon which rural populations are almost completely dependent for domestic water supply. We investigated this link in four villages undergoing sanitary interventions in Bihar State, India. A total of 150 supplies were sampled for thermotolerant (faecal) coliforms (TTC) and tryptophan-like fluorescence (TLF): an emerging real-time indicator of faecal contamination. Sanitary risk inspections were also performed at all sites, including whether a supply was located within 10 m of a toilet, the recommended minimum separation. Overall, 18% of water supplies contained TTCs, 91% of which were located within 10 m of a toilet, 58% had TLF above detection limit, and sanitary risk scores were high. Statistical analysis demonstrated TLF was an effective indicator of TTC presence-absence, with a possibility of TTCs only where TLF exceeded 0.4 μg/L dissolved tryptophan. Analysis also indicated proximity to a toilet was the only significant sanitary risk factor predicting TTC presence-absence and the most significant predictor of TLF. Faecal contamination was considered a result of individual water supply vulnerability rather than indicative of widespread leaching into the aquifer. Therefore, increasing faecal contamination of groundwater-derived potable supplies is inevitable across the country as uptake of on-site sanitation intensifies. Communities need to be aware of this link and implement suitable decentralised low-cost treatment of water prior to consumption and improve the construction and protection of new supplies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts to control Taenia solium in low-income countries have been unsuccessful or unsustainable. This could indicate a ‘missing link’ in our understanding of the transmission dynamics of the parasite and possibly the magnitude of environmental contamination. We aimed to identify risk factors associated with porcine cysticercosis using a case-control study design, utilising known information on persistent or multiple infections of porcine cysticercosis. The study, a combination of questionnaire interviews and observational surveys, was conducted in July 2014 in the two districts Mbeya and Mbozi, Tanzania. Study households were identified based on their status regarding porcine cysticercosis prevalence and allocated into cases or controls based on previous porcine cysticercosis presence. This resulted in 43 farmers in the case group and 50 farmers in the control group, from 20 villages. Potato peels were said to be given to pigs either raw or boiled by 46% of the farmers. Based on logistic regression porcine cysticercosis could be associated with absence or a completely open latrine ( p = 0.035, OR 5.98, CI: 1.33–43.02) compared to an enclosed latrine. Feeding potato peels to pigs was also associated with increased risk of infection ( p = 0.007, OR 3.45, CI: 1.43–8.79). Logistic analysis including the pig management system indicated pigs kept in elevated pens ( p = 0.049, OR 5.33, CI: 1.08–32.27) and on a dirt floor ( p = 0.041, OR 9.87, CI: 1.29–114.55) were more likely to be infected compared to a cemented floor. Whether potato peels are contaminated with Taenia eggs before they reach the household or whether the contamination is from water or dirty hands during the process of peeling, remains to be confirmed. This study suggests that detailed assessment of a number of areas of pig management is essential for designing effective control programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few attempts have been made to examine the influence of student and school factors on academic achievement of youth in West Africa. We examined student- and school-level predictors of academic achievement of Ghanaian junior high school students. Age, gender, academic self-efficacy, and commitment to school are significantly associated with math and English scores. Class size and the presence of toilet facility are significant predictors of English scores. Given the long-standing debate of whether student characteristics or school resources have larger effects on academic achievement, this study presents evidence on the importance of student characteristics on Ghanaian youth's academic achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: A growing proportion of the global population rely on shared sanitation facilities, despite their association with adverse health outcomes. We sought to explore differences between neighbour-shared and communal latrines in terms household demographics, accessibility, facilities and use. Methods:We conducted surveys among 295 households relying on shared sanitation in 30 slums in Orissa, India, 60.3% (178) of which relied on neighbour-shared latrines while the balance relied on communal latrines. We collected household demographic data, conducted latrine spot-checks and collected data on indicators of use, accessibility, privacy and cleanliness. Results: Compared to neighbour-shared facilities, households relying on communal facilities were poorer, larger, less educated, less likely to have access to piped water and more likely to have a member practicing open defecation. Communal latrines were also less accessible, less likely to have water or a hand washing station on site and cleaned less frequently; they were more likely to have visible faeces and flies present. Conclusions: We found significant differences between neighbour-shared and communal facilities in terms of user demographics, access, facilities and cleanliness that could potentially explain differences in health. These findings highlight the need for a shared sanitation policy that focuses not just on the number of users, but also on maintenance, accessibility, cleanliness and provision of water and hand washing facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many urban poor areas of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), demand for human excreta disposal is met, predominantly by pit latrines. This study aimed at determining the status of pit latrines (design, construction, operation and maintenance) and its influence on latrine performance (filling, smell and insect nuisance). The study was conducted on 130 pit latrines in typical urban poor areas of Kampala, Uganda. Data on design, construction, usage, operation and performance of the pit latrines was collected by interviews, observations and measurements; and analysed by descriptive statistics, bi-variate analysis and logistic regression. Results showed that the level of pit content was predicted by rain or storm water entry, terrain, cleaning before or after use and number of households using the latrine. Smell was predicted by cleanliness, stance length, superstructure material and whether the latrine was private or public. The predictor of presence of flies was the superstructure material. To improve the performance of pit latrines in urban poor areas, researchers and practitioners should develop local latrine design standards (dimensions, construction materials and number of users) and cleaning guidelines for local policy makers to implement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This analytical investigation focuses on the quantification of odorant molecules in the headspace of latrines. Hydrogen sulfide and methyl mercaptan were derivatized under a more stable N-ethyl maleimide conjugate. Since the amount of odorant molecules is very low in the gas phase, we developed a method that had two steps of concentration. The first step consisted of the accumulation of volatiles in buffered water by bubbling 350 L of air in a bottle. The second step consisted of loading the water on a 1 g solid-phase extraction cartridge, shipping it to our laboratories, and desorbing with Et2O, which achieved a total concentration factor of 3.5 × 106. The acidification of the water phase gave us access to the acids, and an additional bottle containing an acidic ion-exchange resin gave us access to trimethyl amine. The limits of quantification in the gas phase were 8.7 × 10-4 μg/L air for hydrogen sulfide, 1 × 10-4 μg/L air for methyl mercaptan, 1 × 10-3 μg/L air for butyric acid, 1 × 10-4 μg/L air for p-cresol, 1 × 10-5 μg/L air for indole, and 1 × 10-5 μg/L air for skatole. The system was calibrated by using olfactometers, which can deliver a precisely known quantity of volatiles into the air. We were able to quantify all compounds near their odor detection thresholds (ODTs). All ODTs were measured in our laboratory with the same olfactometry method. This allowed accurate and comparable ODT values for malodorant compounds from toilets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Latrine use (i.e., the repeated use of specific defecation/urination sites) has been described for several mammals, including carnivores, ungulates, and primates. However, the functional significance of latrine use in primates has not been studied systematically yet. We, therefore, followed 14 radio-collared individuals of the pair-living white-footed sportive lemur ( Lepilemur leucopus) for 1097 hours of continuous focal observations to investigate latrine distribution, seasonality of latrine use, as well as age and sex of users to test various hypotheses related to possible functions of latrine use, including territory demarcation, resource defense, signaling of reproductive state, social bonding, and mate defense. All individuals of a social unit exhibited communal use of latrines located in the core area of their territory, supporting the social boding hypothesis. Latrine use seems to facilitate familiarity and social bonding within social units via olfactory communication in this primate that lives in family units but exhibits low levels of spatial cohesion and direct social interactions. In addition, frequency of latrine visitation was higher during nights of perceived intruder pressure, supporting the mate defense hypothesis. However, animals did not react to experimentally introduced feces from neighboring or strange social units, indicating that urine may be the more important component of latrines than feces in this arboreal species. Based on a survey of latrine use and function in other mammals, we conclude that latrines facilitate communication particularly in nocturnal species with limited habitat visibility and in species where individuals are not permanently cohesive because they constitute predictable areas for information exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to investigate faecal material from a medieval latrine in the coastal town of Riga (Latvia) in order to identify the intestinal parasites present within the population. We identified very large numbers of the eggs of three species of parasitic intestinal worms that affect humans - fish tapeworm ( Diphyllobothrium latum ), whipworm ( Trichuris trichiura ), and roundworm ( Ascaris lumbricoides ). The fish tapeworm evidence demonstrates that the population were eating large amounts of uncooked fish (perhaps raw, smoked, or pickled) since cooking prevents parasite transmission. ELISA analysis identified the presence of the parasite Entamoeba histolytica , which can cause dysentery in humans. We also noted two eggs of equid pinworm ( Oxyuris equi ) that affects horses and donkeys, demonstrating the presence of this parasite in farm animals of the region by the medieval period. We discuss the implications of these findings for our knowledge of intestinal parasites in coastal areas of the medieval Baltic region, of food consumption, of hygiene, and of the affects of the parasites upon the health of those living in medieval Riga, the most important city in the crusader state of Livonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Our group conducted a cluster-randomised trial in 100 villages of Orissa, India to measure the impact of a rural sanitation intervention implemented under the government of India's Total Sanitation Campaign, on diarrhoea and soil-transmitted helminth infections. This paper reports on a process evaluation conducted in the context of the trial. Methods: Process evaluation data were collected through review of key documentation, quantitative surveys, direct observations, and semi-structured interviews with staff from implementing NGOs and community members. Between March 2011 and March 2012, trained enumerators recorded observations on latrine construction status every 6-8 weeks in the 50 intervention villages and noted activities reported to have taken place based on NGO staff interviews and review of NGO records. A survey among 10% of households in intervention and control villages was conducted to compare levels of awareness of key intervention components. In addition, 10% of village water and sanitation committee (VWSC) members were interviewed to measure their level of involvement in the intervention delivery. Results: The percentage of households with a latrine (completed or under construction) increased from 8% at baseline to 66% one year after the start of the intervention in March 2012. Almost none of the intervention households recall any form of participatory community-level activities at the start of the programme, although intervention households were generally more aware of the Total Sanitation Campaign (91% versus 49%, p < 0.001), VWSCs (51% versus 9%, p < 0.001), adolescent girls groups (23% versus 8%, p < 0.01), wall paintings (44% versus 7%, p < 0.001) and were more likely to report a household visit on sanitation during the past three months (65% versus 3%, p < 0.001). We found no strong evidence of an association between levels of awareness of or participation in mobilisation activities and levels of latrine coverage in intervention villages. Conclusions: The levels of coverage achieved and the levels of awareness of the mobilisation process in our intervention villages were lower than planned, but similar to those reported elsewhere in India under the TSC. Our process evaluation highlights important gaps between the TSC guidelines and their implementation on the ground. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background While the sanitation ladder is useful in analysing progressive improvements in sanitation, studies in Uganda have not indicated the sanitation barriers faced by the urban poor. There are various challenges in shared latrine use, cleaning and maintenance. Results from Kampala city indicate that, failure to clean and maintain sanitation infrastructure can lead to a reversal of the potential benefits that come with various sanitation facilities. Methods A cross sectional qualitative study was conducted between March and May 2013. Data were collected through 18 focus group discussions (FGDs) held separately; one with women, men and youth respectively. We also used pictorial methods; in addition, 16 key informant interviews were conducted. Data were analysed using content thematic approach. Relevant quotations per thematic area were identified and have been used in the presentation of the results. Results Whether a shared sanitation facility was improved or not, it was abandoned once it was not properly used and cleaned. The problem of using shared latrines began with the lack of proper latrine training when people do not know how to squat on the latrine hole. The constrained access and security concerns, obscure paths that were filthy especially at night, lack of light in the latrine cubicle, raised latrines sometimes up to two metres above the ground, coupled with lack of cleaning and emptying the shared facilities only made a bad situation worse. In this way, open defecation gradually substituted use of the available sanitation facilities. This paper argues that, filthy latrines have the same net effect as crude open defection. Conclusion Whereas most sanitation campaigns are geared towards provision of improved sanitation infrastructure, these findings show that mere provision of infrastructure (improved or not) without adequate emphasis on proper use, cleaning and maintenance triggers an involuntary descent off the sanitation ladder. Understanding this reversal movement is critical in sustainable sanitation services and should be a concern for all actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In more developed areas of the world we have forgotten the horrors of using a disgusting toilet and we now take for granted that toilets are comfortable, well lit, smell free, private, pleasant places to defecate. They are places where we can 'go in peace'. Latrines provided using donor funds have tended to be designed from a purely functional perspective and based on vague ideas about what poor people want, or what the implementing organization thinks poor people should have. The growing use of professional designers in the sector is making implementing organizations pay attention to the key attributes of the latrine and view its design from the perspective of the user. This paper brings the engineer's and designer's perspectives together and looks at what we mean by 'beautiful latrine'. It draws on the work of Donald A. Norman, providing a lens through which the visceral, behavioural, and reflective design aspects of a latrine can be viewed. The paper draws heavily on the author's 20-year experience in the sanitation sector in Africa and Asia and thousands of happy hours spent talking and poking his nose into people's most private business. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) refer to several parasitic nematode species that infect over 1 billion people worldwide. Infections with Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and the hookworms Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale cause significant morbidity in more than 450 million people, primarily children and pregnant women, resulting in over 39 million disability-adjusted life years lost. Considerable effort and resources have been, and continue to be, spent on top-down, medical-based programs to control STH infections, with little success. This review discusses the problems with these methods and proposes a new emphasis on sustainable, long-term investments in sanitation-based approaches using improved latrines (the 'box') to provide bottom-up, culturally appropriate, and economically desirable solutions to STH control in endemic areas. One such approach is the use of biogas technology. Waste undergoes fermentation in specially designed septic systems, generating a methane gas mixture ('biogas') that can be burned to augment or replace household energy needs such as cooking and light generation. Also, the effluent from the fermentation chamber provides a high quality, nitrogen rich fertilizer. Using China as an example, the use of biogas technology as a solution to rural sanitation and energy problems is described, and its advantages over current strategies of mass drug administration and vaccination for STH control are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To assess the effect on health of the following measures in schools in Maradi (Niger): clean water supply, construction of latrines, establishment of hand washing stations, and health education. Methodology. It was a "before and after" intervention study on a sample of school children aged 7 to 12 years in the Maradi region. The interventions included building of latrines, supplying clean water, setting up hand washing stations, and teaching health education lessons. An individual questionnaire, analysis of stool samples, and a group questionnaire were administered to children and teachers, respectively. The threshold for significance was set at P < 0.05. Results. A statistically significant reduction in cases of diarrhoea and abdominal pains was noted after the project. Overall, carriage of at least one parasite increased from 7.5% before the project to 10.2% after it (P = 0.04). In the programme group schools, there was a statistically significant increase in the prevalence of Hymenolepis nana, from 0 to 1.9 (P = 0.02). Pinworm prevalence remained stable in this group but increased significantly in the control group. Conclusions. Putting health infrastructure in place in schools obviously had an impact on hygiene-related habits in the beneficiary schools and communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Defecation in communal latrines is a common behaviour of extant mammals widely distributed among megaherbivores. This behaviour has key social functions with important biological and ecological implications. Herbivore communal latrines are only documented among mammals and their fossil record is exceptionally restricted to the late Cenozoic. Here we report the discovery of several massive coprolite associations in the Middle-Late Triassic of the Chañares Formation, Argentina, which represent fossil communal latrines based on a high areal density, small areal extension and taphonomic attributes. Several lines of evidence (size, morphology, abundance and coprofabrics) and their association with kannemeyeriiform dicynodonts indicate that these large synapsids produced the communal latrines and had a gregarious behaviour comparable to that of extant megaherbivores. This is the first evidence of megaherbivore communal latrines in non-mammal vertebrates, indicating that this mammal-type behaviour was present in distant relatives of mammals, and predates its previous oldest record by 220 Mya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was carried out in the rural community of Hawzien district of Ethiopia to assess the pattern of use of dry pit latrines by households and the associated factors. The study shows that only 37.4% of the households used them consistently. The rest of the households cited cultural beliefs (44%), foul smell (22.6%) and inconvenience of use (17.8%) as the major reasons for the non-use of latrines. Illiteracy in male heads of households, low monthly income and non-enrolment of households under any sanitation project by local administration were found to be the other factors for the non-use of latrines. Short distance from the households to the nearest health care institution and presence of latrines within the compounds of houses were positive factors associated with their use. Therefore, expanding and continuing components of the health care programme related to hygiene and sanitation is crucial for increasing the rate of latrine use in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

More than 2.5 billion people defecate in the open. The increased commitment of private and public organizations to improving this situation is driving the research and development of new technologies for toilets and latrines. Although key technical aspects are considered by researchers when designing new technologies for developing countries, the basic aspect of offending malodors from human waste is often neglected. With the objective of contributing to technical solutions that are acceptable to global consumers, we investigated the chemical composition of latrine malodors sampled in Africa and India. Field latrines in four countries were evaluated olfactively and the odors qualitatively and quantitatively characterized with three analytical techniques. Sulfur compounds including H2S, methyl mercaptan, and dimethyl-mono-(di;tri) sulfide are important in sewage-like odors of pit latrines under anaerobic conditions. Under aerobic conditions, in Nairobi for example, paracresol and indole reached concentrations of 89 and 65 μg/g, respectively, which, along with short chain fatty acids such as butyric acid (13 mg/g) explained the strong rancid, manure and farm yard odor. This work represents the first qualitative and quantitative study of volatile compounds sampled from seven pit latrines in a variety of geographic, technical, and economic contexts in addition to three single stools from India and a pit latrine model system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the probable influence of latrines and groundwater flow on the water quality of shallow tube wells in Shinduria village (23°52' N and 90°14' E) of Dhaka district, Bangladesh. A questionnaire survey was made to collect basic information on tube wells and latrines. Four boreholes were drilled to investigate lithostratigraphy. Twenty one water samples were collected and their physico-chemical parameters (Dissolved Oxygen, pH, phosphate, sulphate, nitrate, nitrite and iron) were analyzed using standard method. Total viable bacterial count (TVBC), total coliform count (TCC), total faecal coliform count (TFCC), total salmonella shigella (TSS) and total vibrio count (TVC) were also made using membrane filtration method. Average depth of the tube wells was 120 ft and most of them were less then ten years old. About 85% latrines were ring slab type and about 50% of these were built during the last five years. From borehole data, a shallow aquifer was identified at a depth of hundred feet from where local people extract drinking water. Although most of the physico-chemical parameters of the tested samples were within the Department of Environment (DoE). But almost all of the tested samples failed to ensure the quality of acceptable level for drinking water recommended by World Health Organization (WHO) due to the presence of higher load of TVBC (5.07 x 10³ cfu/100 ml), TCC (8.44 x 103 cfu/10 0ml), TFCC (5.16 x 10² cfu/100 ml) and TSS (1.10 x 10³ cfu/100 ml). Local geological conditions and proximity between tube well and latrine promoted bacterial transport towards tube well while groundwater flow direction from the adjacent Bangshi River influenced the phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mammalian scent marking in localized defecation sites (latrines) has often been interpreted in the context of (male) territory defense. However, latrines could have different functions in males and females, especially where territorial males monopolize groups of females with stable social alliances and pronounced home range overlap. We investigated the communicatory significance of latrines in wild Arabian gazelles ( Gazella arabica) and assessed the spatial distribution of latrines within home ranges. Latrine density and utilization was highest in the center of female group home ranges, and less frequent in peripheral home range sections, pointing towards communication within groups rather than towards territoriality. When considering male home ranges, latrine densities and utilization were higher in non-overlap zones, contradicting a territorial function. This pattern appears to be caused by more females than territorial males per given area establishing latrines. A subsequent survey of latrine utilization, based on camera trapping, suggests that males use latrines for territory defense: males visited latrines in overlap zones disproportionally more often than females, and successions of two males prevailed. Our study thus highlights that male territorial marking can be masked when males and females use the same marking system for different purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Arabian gazelle (Gazella arabica) populations have been decimated in most parts of their original range. As a cryptic, crepuscular species, Arabian gazelles are difficult to observe, rendering monitoring programs for conservation purposes a challenging endeavour. Latrine mapping has been suggested as an effective, time- and cost-efficient tool to survey and estimate the abundance of gazelles in remote areas with low population densities. In the present study we collected data from five populations in Saudi Arabia to address the question of how population estimates can be inferred from such latrine counts and uncovered a non-linear relationship between both variables. Methodologies applied during the five surveys differed between study sites, so caution is required when interpreting our data. Still, given the immediate threat to the survival of the species, there is an urgent need to establish a time- and cost-efficient sampling method that will be vital for the conservation of remnant pockets of natural populations and for the proclamation of new protected areas in Saudi Arabia and other countries in the Middle East, and the present data are the only available source of information in this context. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

African pit latrines produce prodigious numbers of the latrine fly, Chrysomya putoria, a putative vector of diarrhoeal pathogens. We set out to develop a simple, low-cost odour-baited trap for collecting C. putoria in the field. A series of field experiments was carried out in The Gambia to assess the catching-efficiency of different trap designs. The basic trap was a transparent 3L polypropylene box baited with 50 g of fish, with a white opaque lid with circular entrance holes. We tested variations of the number, diameter, position and shape of the entrance holes, the height of the trap above ground, degree of transparency of the box, its shape, volume, colour, and the attractiveness of gridded surfaces on or under the trap. Traps were rotated between positions on different sampling occasions using a Latin Square design. The optimal trapping features were incorporated into a final trap that was tested against commercially available traps. Features of the trap that increased the number of flies caught included: larger entrance holes (compared with smaller ones, p<0.001), using conical collars inside the holes (compared with without collars, p = 0.01), entrance holes on the top of the trap (compared with the side or bottom, p<0.001), traps placed on the ground (compared with above ground, p,0.001), the box having transparent sides (compared with being opaque, p<0.001), and with no wire grids nearby (compared with those with grids, p = 0.03). This trap collected similar numbers of C. putoria to other common traps for blow flies. The optimum trap design was a transparent box, with a white plastic lid on top, perforated with 10 conical entrance holes, placed on the ground. Our simple trap provides a cheap, low-maintenance and effective method of sampling C. putoria in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Composting toilets aim to recycle excrement into safe, stable humus. Preceding this, low costs, low risks, and mass reduction should be ensured. Source separating vermicomposting toilets (SSVCs) outperformed mixed latrine microbial composting toilets (MLMCs) in all categories. MLMCs: incurred ten times greater operational costs; created 10x more operator exposure; employed no proven pathogen reduction mechanism since solid end-products averaged 71,000±230,000CFU/g (fecal-origin) Escherichia coli and 24±5% total solids, consistently failed NSF/ANSI Standard 41; failed to reduce volatile solids compared to raw fecal matter; increased total contaminated dry mass by 274%, and produced alkaline end-product (8.0±0.7) high in toxic free ammonia (Solvita® 2.6±1.5). SSVCs have low maintenance costs and risks; adequate worm density for pathogen destruction (0.03±0.04g-worm/g-material); reduced E. coli 200±244CFU/g in neutral (7.4±0.3), stable (60±10% volatile solids), and mature (4±0 Solvita® NH3) end-product. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

ObjectiveTo assess the magnitude and determinants of vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and coverage of vitamin A supplementation (VAS) among pre-school children.DesignA community-based cross-sectional study was carried out by adopting a multistage, stratified, random sampling procedure.SettingRural areas of eight states in India.SubjectsPre-school children and their mothers were covered.ResultsA total of 71 591 pre-school children were clinically examined for ocular signs of VAD. Serum retinol concentrations in dried blood spots were assessed in a sub-sample of 3954 children using HPLC. The prevalence of Bitot spots was 0·8 %. The total ocular signs were significantly higher (P < 0·001) among boys (2·6 %) compared with girls (1·9 %) and in older children (3–4 years) compared (P < 0·001) with younger (1–2 years), and were also high in children of labourers, scheduled castes and illiterate mothers. The odds of having Bitot spots was highest in children of scheduled caste (OR = 3·8; 95 % CI 2·9, 5·0), labourers (OR = 2·9; 95 % CI 2·1, 3·9), illiterate mothers (OR = 2·7; 95 % CI 2·2, 2·3) and households without a sanitary latrine (OR = 5·9; 95 % CI 4·0, 8·7). Subclinical VAD (serum retinol level <20 μg/dl) was observed in 62 % of children. This was also relatively high among scheduled caste and scheduled tribe children. The rate of coverage of VAS was 58 %.ConclusionsThe study revealed that VAD is a major nutritional problem and coverage of VAS was poor. The important determinants of VAD were illiteracy, low socio-economic status, occupation and poor sanitation. Strengthening the existing VAS programme and focused attention on dietary diversification are essential for prevention of VAD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While efforts are underway to expand latrine coverage to an estimated 2.6 billion people who lack access to improved sanitation, there is evidence that actual use of latrines is suboptimal, limiting the potential health and environmental gains from containment of human excreta. We developed a passive latrine use monitor (PLUM) and compared its ability to measure latrine activity with structured observation. Each PLUM consisted of a passive infrared motion detector, microcontroller, data storage card, and batteries mounted in a small plastic housing that was positioned inside the latrine. During a field trial in Orissa, India, with ∼115 households, the number of latrine events measured by the PLUMs was in good agreement with that measured by trained observers during 5 h of structured observation per device per week. A significant finding was that the presence of a human observer was associated with a statistically significant increase in the number of latrine events, i.e., the users modified their behavior in response to the observer. Another advantage of the PLUM was the ability to measure activity continuously for an entire week. A shortcoming of the PLUM was the inability to separate latrine events that occurred in immediate succession, leading to possible undercounting during high-traffic periods. The PLUM is a promising technology that can provide detailed measures of latrine use to improve the understanding of sanitation behaviors and how to modify them and for assessing the intended health, livelihood, and environmental benefits of improved sanitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]