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Career theory is not a new topic, but one with an interesting past. The theories have been developed through working with men in the early days of the study of careers, modified to add women, and then modified even more for men and women in transition. Making a career decision is not a single event that takes place only in one's early adulthood, but might happen on other occasions during the life span. As the theory changes, different considerations are evident in the research. Much interest is focused on career transitions and the life change involved in breaking a career pattern. Factors such as changing economies, role expectations, more women in higher education and the workplace have caused theories to be modified and changed. Two implications of a study that investigated what women had done when faced with midlife career changes and how they made their choices were noteworthy and are as follows: (1) the socialization of girls and women and the correlation to their career choice and (2) the apparent need for flexible programming for women. The women in the study who initially focused on being "stay-at-home-mothers" have all chosen traditional women's occupations--a typical pattern according to Gottfredson's theory about early socialization and the tendency for women to choose gender-acceptable occupations. Career planning and vocational maturity need to consider the whole woman and all her needs, which is difficult when the flexibility of time is not available. (Contains 77 references.) (YLB)

The educational, social, and familial influences that lead women to choose information technology (IT) careers were examined in an online survey. Of the 2,500 women who were employed in IT careers in 38 countries and who belonged to the IT professional organization, Systers, 275 responded to the online survey (11% response rate). The respondents ranged in age from 22 to 64 years (38 years mean age) and they had spent a mean of 10.5 years in the IT field. School experiences were an important influence on the respondents. Many respondents were first introduced to computers in school, and they took seriously the encouragement or discouragement of their teachers in high school and college. A significant number of respondents cited male friends and colleagues as powerful influences in their career decisions. Only half the successful IT women had majored in traditional technical fields as undergraduates. Nearly one-third of the women entered the "IT pipeline" directly by majoring in computer science or information systems as an undergraduate; however, nearly one-third had majored in the arts, social sciences, or humanities and entered the IT field in "little increments" through on-the-job experiences and encouragement from mentors or close male friends. Others switched to computer science at the graduate level. (Contains 26 references.) (MN)

A study examined the types of role models who influence career choice in young women planning traditional (education) careers in math- and science-related fields or nontraditional (engineering) careers. The hypothesis was that nontraditional women would be more likely to cite the influence of male role models or influences on career selection than women planning to enter traditional fields. The Career Values Questionnaire, developed for the study, was completed by 150 female students enrolled in either a post-baccalaureate teacher certification program, master's in teaching program in math/science, or a junior, senior, or graduate level engineering program at a large, urban research university. Findings indicated nontraditional women were more likely to cite male role models as influencing their career choice; women following a traditional career path identified teachers and professors as most influential; and both traditional and nontraditional women cited their mothers as having influenced their choice of career, but nontraditional women were more likely to mention their fathers as a career influence. (Contains 14 references and 2 tables.) (YLB)

The position of women in South Australia's process manufacturing industry was examined, and the implications of the study findings for the vocational education and training (VET) sector were discussed. Of the 393 companies to which surveys were sent, 136 (35.8%) returned valid responses. Of the 8,000 people employed in the industry, only 26.1% were women. Women tended to be clustered in low-skilled production jobs, and their representation in supervisory positions was limited. Women were more likely to be employed on part-time and casual bases and to have very limited career paths. The evidence suggested that the masculine environment that women encounter in both the training and work environments is a barrier to their advancement in the process manufacturing industry. It was recommended that real career paths for women, covering the range of occupations in the process manufacturing industry, be encouraged. Working with firms in the industry to promote and educate them in the benefits to be gained by drawing on the diverse range of skills and knowledge in all their employees, including women, was suggested as a way to advance access and equity for women in the manufacturing work force and to encourage more women to pursue apprenticeships and traineeships. (Contains 40 references.) (MN)

The two two-page briefs in this packet focus on nontraditional careers and nontraditional students and how to recruit and teach nontraditional students. "What Do We Know about Nontraditional Careers?" notes that men and women still tend to work in careers that are traditional for their sex, although the numbers of men and women choosing nontraditional jobs are increasing. Women in nontraditional jobs earn 20 percent more than women in traditional jobs, and both men and women need to learn skills for all types of careers, including nontraditional occupations. "How Can We Effectively Recruit and Teach Nontraditional Students?" provides suggestions for both these activities. Suggestions for recruiting nontraditional students include creating career-technical programs to reach all students, presenting career clusters in a way that shows how career pathways can align with interests, giving students multiple opportunities to explore both traditional and nontraditional careers, and helping students overcome stereotypes of appropriate jobs for their gender. Strategies suggested for teaching nontraditional students include improving curriculum and program design, supporting students in working with unfamiliar equipment, bringing in nontraditional role models, avoiding verbal gender bias, and creating contextual learning experiences. References and resources are listed. (KC)

A study determined the extent of gender stratification in Finnish vocational education and labor force, especially in the transition from school to work. It used follow-up data that Statistics Finland gathered in 1990 concerning the labor force status of the 1985 school leavers and the level of their educational qualifications 5 years later to identify gender-related differences in students' choices in vocational education, transition from school to work, and various occupations. Only data relating to vocational institution leavers were used. Findings indicated there were still gender differences in vocational educational and in occupational choices. Women and men made traditional choices both in education and in the labor force. Female-intensive fields of vocational education and the labor force included the clothing industry, home and institutional economics, and social services. Correspondingly, male-dominated programs were as follows: heat, water and ventilation technology; mechanical engineering; vehicle and transportation technology; electrical engineering; forestry; and seafaring. (Contains 26 references.) (YLB)

The European Social Fund's (ESF's) emphasis on new technology training increased throughout the 1980s, but in the 1990s this emphasis disappears from policies toward "socially excluded" groups, including long-term unemployed women. Women are segregated into certain occupations and then further segregated by a hierarchical division that consistently favors men and is reflected in the gendered pay differentials. Furthermore, women are far less likely than men to be employed full time, but are more likely to be in temporary or part-time employment: lower paid and less secure. The importance of this gendered hierarchical and occupational segregation is that women have been restricted to the "low-skilled," low-paid, periphery occupations, with little authority or control. Linked to this concept of gendering is that of re-gendering. This continual process of gendering is related directly to changes within the processes of production and maintains the gendered power differential. New technology is also being "gendered." A research project that followed the general principles of "grounded theory" has shown that new technology training is no longer stressed in the European Union (EU) Priority Guidelines. This change has occurred at the same time as numerous EU Reports have consistently stressed the importance of new technology, especially for vulnerable groups, including women. The targeted working-class women are having the occupational key to the future effectively denied them. (Contains 60 references.) (YLB)

Analysis of research on the Australian elder care industry used the categories of gender equity, gender differences, and gender deconstruction. Findings revealed the gender segregation of the industry, devaluing of women's work, and persistence of body/mind, male/female dualism. (Contains 16 references.) (SK)

To explore the issue of prejudice against male participation in child care professions, a study was conducted with 13 female students in the process of completing 2-year associate degrees in child care. Subjects responded to a projective measure on which they were asked to inspect a list of nine personal "deficiencies" and rate, on a seven-point Likert scale, how important each might be in negatively judging child care workers of both sexes. Subjects were randomly assigned to a male/female or a female/male sequence of consideration. The nine deficiencies included laziness, low intelligence, emotional instability, homosexuality, fear of competition, lack of social skills, physical weakness, inability to do other types of work, and dependent personality. Results of statistical analyses indicated prospective teachers were significantly more concerned about emotional stability than about fear of competition. Strong individual differences in how subjects viewed child care workers were found. On two of the deficiencies, homosexuality and laziness, subjects indicated that there would be greater concern about male than female child care workers. It was concluded that results support the view that males in child care face prejudices from coworkers--prejudices similar to those encountered by males employed in other traditionally female-dominated occupations. (RH)

While there is near parity in Oregon between the numbers of men and women in education, within the profession men and women are segregated by sex. It is clear that sex, more than age, experience, background, or competence, is the major determinant for the occupational role an individual will hold within the profession. The purposes of this paper are (1) to explain the concept of sex role stereotyping and how it guides the behavior of men and women, (2) to illustrate how one's sex has directly affected men's and women's career paths in the field, (3) to explain how sex segregation is perpetuated, and (4) to describe the possible consequences of sex inequity in school management for the functioning of schools. (Author/MLF)

A study was conducted to examine race and sex differences in occupational aspirations and the role of these differences in perpetuating under- or overrepresentation of women and blacks in different occupations. The underrepresentation of women, especially blacks, in all levels of entrepreneurial jobs was stressed since these jobs constitute a large proportion of all jobs and pay better for less education than other fields. Data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress regarding occupational aspirations, values, and self-reported competencies of thirteen-year-olds, seventeen-year-olds, and adults aged twenty-six to thirty-five were used to examine race and sex differences in orientation to particular types of occupations. Based on these results, speculations were presented about how people adjust their occupational goals in ways that help perpetuate occupational segregation. The following five principles were formulated: (1) society-wide stereotypes about good jobs are mirrored in the occupational aspirations of children; (2) stereotypes about occupations appropriate for men are different from those for women; (3) these stereotypes are largely the same for all racial and ethnic groups; (4) as children go through adolescence their aspirations become more realistic; (5) and the races and sexes adjust their aspirations towards different sets of occupations. The data implied that strategies to decrease occupational segregation by decreasing educational handicaps will not eradicate all important differences and recommended that more attention be devoted to understanding the socialization processes that lead the races and sexes to seek different jobs. (Author/BM) Aspect of National Assessment (NAEP) dealt with in this document: Results (Secondary Analyses).

The literature on sex segregation in the workplace was reviewed to determine how it could be used in formulating policy in the area of sex fairness in the American labor market. The committee found that although women's occupational options have increased dramatically in the past decade, sex segregation is still widespread. Among those factors that appeared responsible for sex segregation in the workplace were the following: cultural beliefs; barriers to employment such as discrimination, socialization, and unequal education and training opportunities; family responsibilities; and the opportunity structure. Analysis of the existing laws and programs geared toward intervening in the workplace, in job training, and in education revealed that what is needed is not new legislation but rather more committed leadership, stricter enforcement, and enhancement of voluntary compliance with existing laws. In addition, enforcement agencies must develop much stronger programs of policy-relevant research on such issues as the sources of change in occupations in which the most dramatic improvements in sex-fair opportunities have occurred and the relative effectiveness of measures to improve enforcement and voluntary compliance. (This report includes 15 tables and the table of contents from a comparison report, "Sex Segregation in the Workplace.") (MN)

This discussion of the impact of new computer occupations on women's employment patterns is divided into four major sections. The first section describes the six computer-related occupations to be analyzed: (1) engineers; (2) computer scientists and systems analysts; (3) programmers; (4) electronic technicians; (5) computer operators; and (6) data entry workers. Utilizing published data as well as the 1/1000 Public Use Samples (PUS) from the 1970 and 1980 U.S. Census, section 2 examines the status of women in the six major computer-related occupations and in high tech industries in general. Section 3 uses the 1980 published data and the 1980 PUS sample to investigate the relative earnings of men and women in three computer-related occupations in high tech and non-high tech industries. Six major findings from the study and their implications are discussed in section 4. It is concluded that women need to be made aware of the channeling that leads them into less prestigious, lower paying occupations or industries, and be helped to develop strategies to counteract this movement; however, at the same time efforts must be made to find ways of making occupations and workplaces more welcoming to both genders and more compatible with satisfying personal and family lives. A list of references and nine data tables are included. (JB)

Occupational sex segregation is one of the most obvious facts of economic life. The largest declines in the sex segregation index between 1970 and 1980 were in the managerial and professional specialty and in the service occupations. Changes were greater for white-collar than blue-collar occupations for both white and minority women. White women reduced their entry into a number of traditionally female white-collar occupations that minority women, leaving private household work, continued to enter. It has been easier to pass laws mandating equal opportunity and affirmative action than to eliminate institutional and informal obstacles, such as sexual harassment or coworker hostility, outmoded administrative rules and procedures by employers and unions, and gender-tracked promotional ladders. There has been some growth in the number of women training for and entering higher-status, skilled blue-collar crafts. There are more women apprentices than women currently employed in the occupations. In construction, federally-mandated goals and timetables established in 1978 have led to increases in women employees, although enforcement efforts have been lax since 198l. In 1978, over 150 programs were able to recruit and train women for apprenticeships; only 50 remain after training and enforcement cutbacks. Federal training programs are doing relatively little to recruit and place women into nontraditional jobs; however, funding under the Perkins Vocational Education Act has been crucial to sustaining the successful community-based preapprenticeship training programs. (The paper also includes sections on integration of white-collar work, the impact of technological change, and policy implications and recommendations. Four data tables, a list of organizations contacted, and 115 references are included.) (CML)