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The architectural form of the facade determines its identity as well as interactions with micro-climate forces of the ambient environment, such as solar radiation. The dynamic nature of daylight and occupants' positions can cause some issues such as heat gains and visual discomfort, which need to be controlled in real-time operation. Improving daylight performance and preventing visual discomfort for multiple occupants simultaneously is challenging. However, integrating the biomimicry principles of morphological adaptation with dynamic, complex fenestration, and human-in-loop systems can lead us to find an optimal solution. This research builds on relevant literature study, biomimicry morphological approaches, and parametric simulations, to develop a bio-inspired interactive kinetic facade for improving multiple occupants' visual comfort simultaneously, inspired by plant's stomata movement and behavior principles. Learning from the transitory stage and hunting new position of stomata's patchy patterns, leads us to identify the dynamic transitory-sensitive area of attraction point on the facade that is triggered by the dynamic sun-timing position and multiple occupants. The annual climate-based metrics and luminance-based metric simulation results of 810 bio-inspired interactive kinetic facade alternatives prove that the elastic-deformable-complex-kinetic form triggered by the dynamic transitory-sensitive area can improve the visual comfort of multiple occupants simultaneously. In particular, the bio-inspired interactive kinetic facade with grid division 8x1 displays extraordinary daylight performance for south direction that prevents visual discomfort by keeping cases in the imperceptible range while providing an adequate average Spatial Daylight Autonomy of 60.5%, Useful Daylight illuminance of 90.47%, and Exceed Useful Daylight illuminance of 2.94%.

This research explores current strategies and approaches directed to integrate innovative technologies in the home modification process to support independent living and ageing in place. The systematic review considered studies conducted from the perspective of architecture, smart technology, and gerontology. Scientific databases of related disciplines (e.g. Scopus, Web of Science, Engineer village, Google Scholar, Crossref) were searched and supplemented by hand search method. Thirty-three out of 2594 articles were analysed from three perspectives: the framework of the smart home environment for ageing in place, the smart home modification process, and problems and countermeasures of independent living. The result shows that both home modification and smart technologies can support older adults’ independent living, especially with fall prevention and indoor accessibility. Technologies deployed in older adults’ homes are transiting from manual assistive technology to more intelligent devices, and the notion of the robotic home has emerged. According to existing practices, universal design is an extensively adopted strategy for smart home design and modification. However, in most cases, universal design is used as a retrofitting guideline for general home settings rather than specifically for smart homes. The fundamental requirements in smart home modification phases are customisation, minimum life interference, and extensible technologies to cope with the ageing process.

As the goal-setting in the European Green Deal is to reach carbon neutrality by 2050, great efforts have been put to improve the energy efficiency in residential buildings. As residential buildings are towards high energy efficiency, building envelopes are becoming better thermally insulated and systems are becoming more energy-efficient. Therefore, the role of occupants in the actual building performance is becoming more important. However, contradictions exist between the uncertainties caused by occupant behaviour (OB) and the over-simplified consideration of OB in building design. Therefore, this paper aims to present a state-of-the-art of how OB is represented in residential buildings. Through a literature study, this paper first reviews different occupant behaviours and how they are considered in the design and operation of high-performance residential buildings. Modelling methods are categorized by occupant activities. In addition, behavioural theories in the application of analysing building performance are reviewed. How the behavioural theories are integrated with state-of-the-art building technologies is outlined. Finally, challenges and suggestions for representing the interaction between occupants and buildings in the design and operation of residential buildings are discussed.

Prediction of the energy performance of buildings helps designers with decision-making during the design process in new construction, as well as in renovation projects. Simulation software is used as a prediction tool to calculate the energy performance of buildings. However, numerous studies question its reliability due to the existing discrepancy (gap) between calculated and actual energy performance. Although occupant behaviour is identified as a factor of major impact on the energy performance of buildings, the complex stochastic nature of user behaviour makes it difficult to define actual occupancy patterns. As a result, standard and normative data are usually used as input in energy simulation models. The aim of this research is to test the effect of the use of actual presence profiles on energy demand simulations compared to the use of international normative presence profiles. A study on energy demand has therefore been developed, using dynamic simulation and monitoring campaigns. The results show that the heating and cooling energy demand may differ by up to 15% depending on whether actual or standard presence profiles are used. Therefore, presence profiles should be considered as a significant factor in the adjustment of input data in renovation projects. The final aim of this investigation is to determine the effect of using more accurate building and occupancy simulation parameters when assessing the feasibility of building renovation (payback period calculation for example). This paper focuses on the effect of presence profiles.

The dynamic nature of daylight and occupant's position can cause some issues such as heat gains and visual discomfort, which need to be controlled in real-time operation. Responsive facades have been pervasively used for preventing daylight glare and meeting daylight performance requirements. However, some passive strategies such as the colored glass of the Orosi typical architectural elements used in Iranian central courtyard buildings have the potential to filter excess daylight, as well as providing other functions such as aesthetics and privacy. This paper explores, for the first time, the possibility of coupling a kinetic facade with colored glasses to improve the daylight performance. This research builds on a combination of relevant literature and parametric simulation to investigate the development of integration of colored glass from Orosi with interactive kinetic facades, triggered by sun timing and occupants' positions. In total, 72 interactive kinetic facade cases are parametrically simulated, and their daylight performance is evaluated through climate-luminance based metrics. The simulation results confirm the high performance of the interactive kinetic facades for improving daylight performance regarding a base case. The integrated interactive kinetic facade with colored glass provides a real-time adaptation of the multifunctional passive strategy to sun timing and occupants' position. The integrated interactive kinetic facade with colored glass which uses parametric decentralized and hierarchical rotating (0–45°) movements, shows more improvement in daylight performance compared to other cases based on climate-luminance based metrics evaluation.

This paper focuses on exploring methods for reducing the gap between the expected and actual building energy performance by using simulation tools. The study has two purposes. The first is to quantify the relative effect of the different building parameters measured on the energy heating and cooling consumption compared with standard parameters through the adjustment of simulation models. The second is to develop an approach, based on three methods, for monitoring residential buildings, while also testing and calibrating methodologies for the simulation software. The approach developed is applied and tested in two real case studies (two apartments in two identically constructed buildings, one refurbished and the other not) in the city of Madrid, Spain. The analysis of the case studies shows that there is a four-fold difference in potential savings in energy for heating between models adjusted with standard and actual parameters. Moreover, the results reveal the significant impact of the use of actual weather data and users’ behaviour in the adjustment of simulation models and demonstrate the utility of the application of these methods.

Applying active occupant engagement into a responsive facade concept leads us to a transition from the facade regulatory function to the interactive phase. The Interactive facade has the capacity for hierarchically filtering daylight and real-time control, and preventing daylight discomfort. This research applied the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods for studying innovative daylight guide systems functions, relation with building forms and development of kinetic facade forms as advanced real-time daylight control. Literature referred to the responsive modular elements which can be adapted to dynamic daylight by continuously changing facade configurations. In particular, parametric decentralized facade's apertures interact with sun radiation based on relationship between external environment, interior space and occupant position as well. In this study, we develop a kinetic interactive facade with the capability to be transformed based on dynamic daylight and occupant position (functional scenario based) in order to meet visual comfort. Also, daylight parametric simulation investigates visual comfort performance provided by the kinetic facade forms through climate based daylight metrics. The simulation results prove high performance of the kinetic interactive facades for improving visual comfort regarding the base case. In particular, the three dimensional shape changes facade provides more visual comfort improvement than the two dimensional shape changes one regarding UDI, Exceed UDI and DGP metrics. Also, the results refer to multifunctional aspects of the three dimensional shape changes facade, as an advanced interactive daylighting system, which has a capability to control solar radiation in the facade ambient environment for preventing thermal discomfort.

A number of facade solutions have been developed in recent years to solve the problem of large-scale renovation of housing. In the Netherlands, housing associations have the ambition to achieve an energy-neutral renovation approach, and so, some aim at energy neutrality. However, few address the complexity of multi-family rental dwellings and more importantly, the importance of user behaviour in the actual performance of the buildings. In current approaches, the zero energy target is sought for an average household. In this paper we present an approach to zero energy renovation in which the influence of occupants’ behaviour in building performance is taken into account to eliminate the uncertainties related to energy savings. The results are used to inform the design process regarding the amount of energy production required to reach zero energy performance, and the feasibility of the on-site energy production only with photovoltaic panels. The research showed large statistically significant differences on energy consumption between the different household types, which could contribute to pre-bound effects if these differences are not considered when calculating energy savings and return of investments. When considering scenarios based on behaviour after renovation, the difference between the lowest and the highest heating demand is reduced to 34%.

Research has shown the large effect that occupants have on buildings' performance. Uncertainties related to the actual energy consumption of buildings increase the risks for the investments in low carbon technologies. Monitoring building occupancy can potentially decrease these uncertainties by providing more information about the occupants and their behaviour. The objective of the investigation is to establish an approach to inform the design process (e.g. building simulation) by addressing the complexity of occupants behaviour. The approach integrates information on occupants' behaviour and attitudes regarding energy use and indoor conditions to determine the requirements for building simulation and energy calculations. This paper presents the results of two monitoring campaigns in which the approach was employed. The monitoring campaigns focused on two owner-inhabited apartments in Spain and three social rental dwellings in The Netherlands. The results have given first insights of the power of the methodology to obtain detailed and understandable data on the occupancy patterns. This investigation highlighted the importance socio-economical status and attitudes towards energy conservation on occupants' behaviour in residential buildings. The methods described in this paper can be readily used to develop occupancy and heating profiles for monitored households to be used in building simulation programs.

Building simulations are often used to predict energy demand and to determine the financial feasibility of the low-carbon projects. However, recent research has documented large differences between actual and predicted energy consumption. In retrofit projects, this difference creates uncertainty about the payback periods and, as a consequence, owners are reluctant to invest in energy-efficient technologies. The differences between the actual and the expected energy consumption are caused by inexact input data on the thermal properties of the building envelope and by the use of standard occupancy data. Integrating occupancy patterns of diversity and variability in behaviour into building simulation can potentially foresee and account for the impact of behaviour in building performance. The presented research develops and applies occupancy heating profiles for building simulation tools in order create more accurate predictions of energy demand and energy performance. Statistical analyses were used to define the relationship between seven most common household types and occupancy patterns in the Netherlands. The developed household profiles aim at providing energy modellers with reliable, detailed and ready-to-use occupancy data for building simulation. This household-specific occupancy information can be used in projects that are highly sensitive to the uncertainty related to return of investments.

The energy and building research community acknowledges the importance of including occupants' wellbeing in the evaluation of building energy performance. Particularly in office buildings, occupants' comfort assessment is not yet a common practice, partially due to the shortcomings of the comfort assessment activities. Contextual factors such as the organizational culture, occupants' personality traits and emotional states, and the building and research measurement infrastructures do interact with occupants' motivation to report and influence their actual reporting behaviour. By means of an in situ mixed method approach combining real-world research and user-centric methods, this study investigates the impact of a reporting-based comfort assessment. Two buildings, representing different organizational cultures, were selected to study the influence of reporting behaviour on comfort assessment. The buildings were equipped with innovative indoor climate monitoring and in situ comfort reporting infrastructure and 2-week field studies were conducted in both buildings. By discussing results from these studies, this paper contributes to the development of building research methodologies of indoor climate and comfort assessment by providing practical experience in embedding comfort reporting behaviour in the analysis of comfort assessment. A contextual typology of reporting behaviour is introduced and its implications regarding the reliability and validity of comfort reporting techniques are discussed.

A great number of low carbon technologies have been developed in the last decades. The use of such technologies promises good indoor environment for the building's occupants, lower energy consumption and carbon emissions. However, there are uncertainties related to payback periods and usability constraints of low carbon technologies. In addition, past and current research has shown differences between the expected and the actual performance of buildings, both in terms of energy consumption and indoor comfort. For a better understanding of differences between expected and actual performance of buildings, it is necessary to investigate the energy consumption, the behaviour of the occupants and their interaction with new technologies, and the resulting indoor comfort. Monitoring building performance can help to reduce the uncertainties related to the building performance of buildings. This paper presents an overview and classification of data collection methods to monitor the energy consumption, thermal comfort of occupants and the operation of buildings in use. Data collection methods and techniques are categorised and linked to specific methods to evaluate building performance and recommendations are made to set up building monitoring research. By identifying the most effective methods to monitor buildings, this research aims at embedding performance monitoring in standard practice.

Large differences between the expected and actual energy consumption have been found in energy efficient dwellings. Research has shown that these differences are partially caused by occupant behaviour. The financing and payback periods of low carbon technologies are often uncertain because of the impact of the occupants on building performance. This translates into a reluctance to invest in deep renovation projects. The goal of this design-inclusive research project is to develop a solution for zero energy renovation that reduces the uncertainty on building performance cause by occupants’ behaviour by reducing the uncertainty in design decisions and energy calculations. This investigation focuses on the identification of building type specific occupants and their characteristics, requirements and living practices. This paper presents the user research approach developed for the renovation process. The approach consists of statistical analysis of Dutch households, a monitoring campaign in the area of study and co-creation research through mock-ups, enactments and interviews. Case studies results are presented to highlight the effect of different household types on energy consumption and occupants’ requirements, and point at the importance of taking into account household typology and socio-economic characteristics in energy calculations or building simulations, as well as occupant requirements in the design process.

This book presents the results of a multi-annual project with sustainable Living Labs in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands. Living Labs as initiated by the authors have proved to be very promising research, design, co-creation and communication facilities for the development and implementation of sustainable innovations in the home. The book provides an inspiring introduction to both the methodology and business modelling for the Living Lab facilities. Understanding daily living at home is key to designing products and services that support households in their transition to more sustainable lifestyles. This book not only explores new ways of gaining insights into daily practices, but also discusses developing and testing design methods to create sustainable solutions for households. These new methods and tools are needed because those available are either ineffective or cause rebound-effects. Intended for researchers and designers with an interest in the transition to sustainable lifestyles, it also appeals to company leaders interested in new ways of developing sustainable innovations and offers suggestions for effectively applying Living Labs for sustainable urban development.

Building regulations have been updated to improve the energy performance of buildings. However, research has shown large differences between expected and actual energy performance of buildings. The differences have been attributed partially to occupant behaviour. Occupants have a large influence on the actual performance of buildings, creating uncertainties related to the actual energy savings, payback periods for low carbon technologies, and actual comfort in the buildings. This section explores the influence that building occupants have on the actual performance of domestic buildings and the consequences in the development of new and renovated low and zero energy housing. Monitoring building performance before and after renovation for retrofit projects, and monitoring building performance in experimental Living Labs and after the occupancy of buildings are discussed as potential solutions for occupancy uncertainties.

The energy required for space heating has been significantly reduced in recent decades by making use of insulation and more efficient heating and ventilation systems. Even so, wide variations in energy consumption are still observed between similar dwellings and between actual and predicted levels. It is thought that these variations stem from differences in occupant behaviour, the structural quality of the building, and a rebound effect. This paper statistically examines differences in occupant behaviour in relation to the building characteristics of the housing stock in the Netherlands and explores the possible existence of a rebound effect on the consumption of energy for space heating. Rebound effect can be defined as the increase on energy consumption in services for which improvements in energy efficiency reduce the costs. We found that although energy consumption is lower in energy efficient dwellings, analysis of the behaviour variables indicates their occupants tend to prefer higher indoor temperatures and to ventilate less. This finding might be related to a rebound effect on occupant behaviour. However, the improvement of thermal properties and systems efficiency still lead to a reduction on energy consumption for heating.