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Background: Considerable information is available on the role of micronutrient Zinc in many aspects of immune function and protection of cell membranes from oxidative damage in diseased states. To our knowledge, there are no reports relating Zinc levels with different stages neutralizing antioxidant enzymes and cellular immune processes (leucocyte migration, engulfment and intracellular killing of phagocytosis) among healthy Nigerians. Methodology: In 50 healthy Nigerians, cellular phagocytic mechanism [percentage leucocyte migration (%LM) and intracellular killing (%NBT)] were determined by microscopy; inflammatory cytokines [Plasma interleukin 6 (IL-6) and 8 (IL-8)] were determined using ELISA; respiratory burst indices [plasma catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), myeloperoxidase (MPO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and nitric oxide (NO)] were determined by spectrophotometry. Zinc (Zn) was determined using AAS. Phagocytic indices, cytokines and respiratory burst indices were correlated with plasma Zn levels using Spearmans Correlation analysis at α0.05. Results: The result of the study shows that plasma IL-8 level was negatively correlated with Zn level while catalase was positively correlated with Zn level in healthy Nigerians. Conclusion: Taken together, these findings suggest that immuno-potential effect of Zn may include production of protective antioxidant neutralizing enzyme (catalase) and reduction of IL-8 inflammatory cytokine. Recommendation: These findings raise the possibility that Zn supplementation or Zn containing diets may be beneficial to individuals with intracellular infection or inflammatory diseases.

Background and Objectives: The need for additional markers for differential diagnosis of drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) and drug sensitive M.tb have been raised by previous studies. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-á) produced by monocyte/macrophage, neutrophilic and lymphocytic linkage plays a central role in effective immunity to many disease conditions including M.tb. Since M.tb either preferential inhabits or transits cells producing TNF-á, it is therefore diagnostically useful to measure the levels of TNF-á in the both mononuclear cell lysate and serum of drug sensitive TB (DS-TB) patients and multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) patients compared with healthy controls. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in the Department of Chemical Pathology and Immunology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; Medical Out-Patients' Department and Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis Center, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria. TB patients were selected by Consultant Chest physician after detailed laboratory and clinical procedures. The levels of mononuclear cell lysate- and serum- TNF-á were measured using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results: Serum and lysate TNF-á levels were significantly elevated in DS-TB patients (p 0.05). Conclusions: Serum level of TNF-á or lysate TNF-á does not differentiate DS-TB patients from MDR- TB patients and the use of antagonist of TNF-á be handled with caution in TB patients.

Pregnancy places a very high demand on physical, physiological and immunological responses of females,especially when aggravated by parasitic infestation. There is strong evidence that maternal infestations with helminth haveprofound effects on immunity to helminths and other pathogens. This case-control study involved 245 pregnant women aged18-40 years (30 weeks of gestation) recruited from three secondary level hospitals in Ibadan, Nigeria. Morning stoolsamples collected from pregnant women were examine for intestinal helminths using formol-ether concentration method. Atotal of 38 participants comprising 17 Helminth Positive (HP) and 21 Helminth Negative (HN) pregnant women werepurposely selected for the study. Sera from these women (38) and their babies' cord (38) were analysed for immune factors[interleukins 6 and 8 (IL-6, IL-8), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and immunoglobulin E (IgE)] were analyzed usingELISA. Anthropometric indices [weight and height in mothers and babies and Chest Circumference (CC) in babies] weremeasured using standard methods. Data were subjected to descriptive statistics and analysed using Student t-test and Pearsoncorrelation at α0.05. Only Ascaris lumbricoides was found in the 17 (6.9%) infested pregnant women. The mean levels of IL-6 (57.8 ± 32.8 vs 52.8±39.6 pg/mL), IL-8 (24.3±3.5 vs 22.0±7.1 pg/mL) and IgE (333.3±96.6 vs 242.3±96.8 IU/mL) weresimilar in HP when compared with HN. In cord sera, IL-8 level was significantly higher in babies of HP (23.7±3.9 pg/mL)compared with babies of HN (20.1±5.9 pg/mL). The levels of IL-6, TNF-α and nutritional indices in HP had significantpositive correlation with corresponding levels in babies of HP mothers. Only CC was significantly lowered in babies of HPcompared with HN mothers. Other anthropometric indices were not significantly different. Therefore, this present studysuggests that helminth infestation may lead to strong Th2 immune responses as is reflected by the cytokine levels of mothersand babies as well as anthropometric measurements of babies of infested mothers. The outcomes of this study provide basisto deworm pregnant women during pregnancy.

Adequate nutrition is essential for normal growth of children but helminth infection is proposed to cause nutritional deficiencies. This study was carried out to assess the nutritional status of helminth infected school aged children in semi-urban communities of South-West Nigeria. Two hundred children from primary schools in Akinyele Local Government of Oyo State, Nigeria participated in the study. Anthropometric measurements were analyzed using the WHO AnthroPlus software. Kato Katz method was used to detect ova of helminths in the stool while serum levels of iron, zinc, selenium, ferritin, transferrin, vitamin A, vitamin C and haptoglobin were measured using High Performance Liquid Chromatography and Atomic Absorption Spectophotometry as appropriate. 60 (30%) of the children had intestinal helminth infection with Ascaris lumbricoides (23.0%) as most prevalent, followed by hookworm (2.5%) and Trichuris trichuria (0.5%). Stunting was more prevalent than thinness or underweight among the study population especially the female children. There were significantly reduced serum levels of zinc and vitamin A and significantly increased serum levels of transferrin and selenium in helminth-infected children compared with helminth-uninfected children. This study established the need for regular deworming of school age children and supplementing diets of school children in rural communities with vitamin A and zinc.

Tuberculosis(TB)-specific host biomarkers for diagnosis and monitoring of treatment response have been identified as priorities for TB research. Macrophage and T cell lymphocytes play vital roles in Mycobacterium tuberculosis immune response and their associated biomarkers could form good candidates for diagnosis and treatment monitoring. The enzyme adenosine deaminase (ADA) is produced mainly by monocytes and macrophages and increase in biological fluids in the course of infection with microorganisms infecting macrophages. This study comprised sixty-eight (68) participants; twenty-four (24) multi-drug-resistant TB(MDR-TB) patients, twenty-four (24) drug-sensitive TB patients(DS-TB) and twenty (20) non-TB apparently healthy individuals. Five (5) milliliters of blood was drawn before commencement of chemotherapy and 6 anti-TB therapy. In DSTB and MDR-TB patients before commencement of chemotherapy and 6 months of anti-TB treatment, the mean plasma levels of ADA were significantly increased compared with control. At 6 months of anti-TB chemotherapy of DSTB or MDR TB patients, ADA level was significantly decreased compared with before chemotherapy. Plasma ADA in DSTB patients before and 6 months of chemotherapy were not significantly different compared MDR TB patients. Plasma ADA level is a promising biomarker for the screening and treatment monitoring of pulmonary tuberculosis but not to differentiate MDR TB from DSTB patients.

Folic acid, vitamins and Zinc play essential role in DNA methylation but alcohol consumption is known to affectthe levels of these micronutrients leading to risk of developing various illnesses and certain cancers. This study determinedthe levels of DNA methylation dependent-micronutrients (folate, vitamin B12, vitamin B6, zinc and selenium) andhomocysteine as a suggestion for DNA methylation status in Nigerian alcohol consumers compared with non-consumers ofalcohol. Venous blood (5ml) was obtained from thirty-four males that consume alcoholic beverages for at least 10 years andthirty-two male controls that did not consume alcoholic beverages at least 10 years. Serum concentrations of folate, vitaminB12, vitamin B6, homocysteine (Hcy), selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn) were determined using High Performance LiquidChromatography (HPLC) and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) as appropriate. Independent Student t-test wasused to compare the mean values between alcohol consumers and control. Mean differences were considered significant atp0.05. The mean serum levels of Zn and Se were significantly raised in alcohol consumers when compared with nonalcohol consumers while the mean levels of Vitamin B6 and Hcy were significantly reduced in alcohol consumers whencompared with non-alcohol consumers. There were no statistically significant differences in the mean serum levels ofVitamin B12 and folate in alcohol consumers when compared with non-alcohol consumers. Since vitamin B6 and Hcy arerequired for DNA methylation, reduced vitamin B6 and Hcy levels in consumers of alcoholic beverages might suggest DNAhypomethylation in alcohol consumers.

Background: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic progressive inflammatory autoimmune disorder characterized by symmetric erosive synovitis and sometimes with multi-system involvement. But the exact mechanism of the disease is not fully understood. In the light of above explanation, the present study measured the plasma levels of total peroxide potential (TPP), total antioxidant potential (TAP), malondialdehyde (MDA), oxidative stress index (OSI) and nitric oxide (NO) in relation to the titer of rheumatoid factor among RA patients compared with controls.Methods: This study included 28 rheumatoid arthritis patients and 28 apparently healthy subjects as controls who were matched for age (50-60 years), sex, and socioeconomic status. Rheumatoid factor was estimated using latex method as described by manufacturer. Anthropometric parameters and plasma levels of TPP, TAP, OSI, MDA and NO were determined using standard techniques.Results: The result indicated that with the exception of mean body weight which was significantly (p

Pregnancy and malnutrition influence the severity or trend of malaria especially in sub-Saharan Africa where parasitic infections are highly predominant. This study was used to evaluate the combined effects of low protein diet and pregnancy on the course of Plasmodium berghei infection in mice. Thirty female BALB/c mice were divided into six groups viz: Non-infected mice fed on normal diet (NIND), Infected mice fed on normal diet (IND), Noninfected mice fed on low protein diet (NILP), Infected mice fed on low protein diet (ILP), Non-infected gravid mice fed on low protein diet (NIGLP) and Gravid infected mice fed on low protein diet (GILP). Malaria parasite count, packed cell volume, body weight and plasma nitric oxide (NO) production were determined. Data were compared statistically across the groups using Student t-test and ANOVA. Parasite detection in peripheral blood was delayed in ILP (day 7) and GILP (day 11) relative to IND (day 3). The peak parasitaemia and mean survival time were significantly lower (p0.05) in GILP relative to other infected groups. GILP could not carry the pregnancy to term. Nitric oxide production was observed to increase more rapidly in IND relative to ILP after parasite detection with a peak production by day 15. Mortality commenced in both groups afterwards. Low protein diet delayed the peak production of NO supporting its protective influence on malaria infection. However, the combined effects of low protein diet and pregnancy resulted in early mortality and inability of mice to carry pregnancy to term.

The role of Complement factors in the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders is enormous, but the data on levels and functions of complement factors in patients with schizophrenia are scanty and conflicting. To address this issue, levels of Complement regulators (C1 inhibitor and C3 activator) and complement factors (C1q, C3c, C4 and C5) were determined in the serum of newly diagnosed drug free schizophrenic patients, schizophrenic patients on medication and healthy subjects using immune-plates. C1q was significantly reduced in newly diagnosed schizophrenic patients or schizophrenic patients on medication compared with the controls. C3c was significantly reduced in newly diagnosed schizophrenic patients compared with controls or schizophrenic patients on medication. The levels of C3 activators, C1 inhibitors and C4 were similar in the two groups of schizophrenic patients compared with the controls. It may be concluded from this study that C1q is deficient in schizophrenic patients; and that C3c may differentiate newly diagnosed schizophrenia from schizophrenic patients on medication.

Aim: - Elevated HbF, among other biological and environmental factors, is responsible for decrease in mortality in sickle cell anaemia (SCA). This study determined the levels of HbF in adult SCA patients in steady state compared with HbAA controls. HbF was discussed in line with the clinical course of the disease so as to emphasize the relevance of hydroxyurea in the management of adult SCA patients.Materials and methods: - The HbF levels of 66 confirmed SCA patients and 31 HbAA controls were estimated using Betke method and HbF percentage was calculated using formula: %HbF percentage = A413 filtrate x 100A413 standard x 20.Result: - A statistical significant difference in the mean of the levels of HbF in patients (5.16±4.04) compared to controls (1.04±0.44) (p = 0.000) was observed. The mean levels of HbF for males (4.71±3.49) compared to that of females (4.99) were statistically similar (p =0.773). It was also observed that the mean HbF level appears to be declining as age advances. SCA patients were classified to three categories viz: HbF

The natural history of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection is incompletely understood. Factors other than HIV infection alone may be required for the development of the profound immunosuppression that characterizes advanced HIV disease. Nutritional status plays an important role in maintaining normal immunity and thus may be one of these factors. The plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein, transferrin, selected trace elements (Mg, Zn, Fe, Cu, Cd, Se and Cr,), total protein and albumin were determined in 25 asymptomatic HIV-infected Nigerian subjects and 30 age matched HIV-seronegative controls using single radial immunodiffusion and spectrophotometric methods. The mean values of Cu (73.2 + 23.9 microg/dl), Mg (9.83 + 5.5 mg/dl), Fe (126 + 21 microg/L), Cd (24.6 + 7.2 microg/L), Se (22.0 + 12.2 microg/dl) and Cr (19.0 + 5.2 microg/L) were low in asymptomatic HIV-positive subjects when compared with the controls (Cu = 119.3 + 30.8 microg/dl; Mg = 14.5 + 4.6 mg/L; Fe = 155 + 8.8 microg/ dl; Cd = 33. 1 + 8.3 microg/L; Se = 30.9 + 8.3 microg/dl; Cr = 32.1 + 7.8 microg/ L). The level of Zn was similar in asymptomatic HIV-positive subjects (5.1 + 1.9 mg/dl) and the controls (4.6 + 1.7mg/dl). The value of albumin in asymptomatic HIV-positive subjects (3.43 + 0.7 g/dl) was significantly low when compared with the controls (4.04 + 0.52 g/dl). Significant correlation existed between albumin and Mg in asymptomatic HIV subjects (r = + 0.758, p0.001). The mean value of C-reactive protein was significantly higher in HIV-infected subjects compared with the controls while the level of transferrin in HIV-infected subjects (92.86 + 26.3 mg/dl) did not show any significant difference when compared with the controls (84.36 + 16.9 mg/dl). This study revealed the deficiencies of trace elements in asymptomatic HIV infection and therefore suggests dietary supplementation of these trace elements in the infected subjects.

Serum concentrations of circulating immune complexes (CIC), complement factors (Factor B, C4, C8) and complement activities (CH50 and AH50) were determined in Nigerian school children having urinary schistosomiasis with or without symptomatic malaria by polyethylene glycol precipitation method, single radial immunodiffusion and total haemolytic activities respectively. One hundred and forty-seven children were recruited from St. John's Primary School, Mokola, Ibadan, Nigeria.RP ovale only, mixed infection of P. ovale with P. falciparum or mixed infection of P. malariae with P. falciparum were found in subjects with asymptomatic malaria without urinary schistosomiasis (M-USS) but P. malariae or P. falciparum was found in subjects with co-infection of urinary schistosomiasis and asymptomatic malaria (M + USS). Mean value of C4 concentration was significantly reduced in M - USS subjects or subjects having both USS and asymptomatic malaria (M + USS) compared with non-infected controls. Serum concentration of Factor B(FB) was significantly reduced while AH50 was significantly increased in urinary schisosomiasis subjects without malaria (USS-M) compared with M-USS subjects or the controls. These observations implied that complement system in USS-M subjects is activated predominantly via alternative pathway (APW) while complement system is activated via classical pathway (CPW) in M-USS or M+USS subjects. The switch of complement activation pathway from alternative type in USS-M subjects to classical type in M-USS subjects may explain the lower malaria parasite densities often found in children harbouring Schistosoma haematobium parasites.

To determine if gestational factors affect the severity of L. major infection, this study assessed the levels of IL-4 mRNA and IFN-gamma mRNA in popliteal lymph node cells of pregnant C57BL/6 mice mated at 5 hours, 16 hours and 15 days post L. major infection using PCR. Infected pregnant C57BL/6 mice developed larger cutaneous footpad lesions compared with non-pregnant infected C57BL/6 mice. The resolution of footpad lesions commenced after 8th week in C57BL/6 mice mated at 16 hrs post L. major infection but 12 weeks in C57BL/6 mice mated at 5 hrs and 15 days post L. major infection. C57BL/6 mice that were infected 20 days post partum resolved L. major infection effectively. But, the lesions in infected pregnant C57BL/6 mice and infected non-pregnant C57BL/6 mice were not as large as in susceptible BALB/c mice. The mean litter weights were similar in pregnant infected C57BL/6 mice mated at different stages of L. major infection but were slightly lower than weights of litters from pregnant uninfected C57BL/6 mice. In 5 days infected pregnant C57BL/6 mice, the levels of IFN-gamma were raised compared with the levels of IL-4 but those mated at 15 days post L. major infection had highest level of IFN-gamma mRNA. In 10 days pregnant infected C57BL/6 mice, levels of IL-4 were raised compared with IFN-gamma but mice mated at 16 hrs post L. major infection had highest level of IL-4. In 15 days pregnant infected mice, the levels of IL-4 were higher than IFN-gamma irrespective of the stage of L. major infection when the mice were mated. Mice infected with L. major 20 days post-partum produced more IFN-gamma than IL-4 from 16 hrs post L. major infection onwards. It may be concluded that increased IL-4 in pregnant infected C57BL/6 mice impairs the resistance of C57BL/6 mice to L. major infection especially in mice that were pregnant before effective immunity (5 hours post L. major infection) is mounted against L. major infection.

To assess if gestational factors affect the resistance of C57BL/6 mice to L major infection, this study determined the levels of IL-4 and IFN-gamma in popliteal lymph node cells of pregnant C57BL/6 mice infected with L. major at 16 hours, 5 days-, 10 days- and 15 days- post plug by PCR, ELISA and BIOASSAY.Experimental.Infected pregnant C57BL/6 mice developed larger cutaneous footpad lesions compared with non-pregnant C57BL/6 mice (that showed signs of resolution 7-10 weeks after infection). But, the lesions in infected pregnant C57BL/6 mice and infected non-pregnant C57BL/6 mice were not as large as in susceptible BALB/c mice. The mean litter weight was also reduced in pregnant infected C57BL/6 mice particularly in the groups infected at later stages of pregnancy (day 10- and day 15-post plug). The levels of both IL-4 and IFN-gamma increased with gestation in pregnant infected C57BL/6 mice compared with pregnant non-infected group, while only IL-4 was raised in pregnant infected mice compared with infected non pregnant mice.It may be concluded that increased IL-4 in pregnant infected C57BL/6 mice caused the transient susceptibility to L major infection while reduced litter weight was associated with increased IFN-gamma. These effects were pronounced in C57BI/6 mice infected with L major in late pregnancy.

Considerations of both inter-pregnancy intervals and malaria parasitaemia may help in understanding some aspects of susceptibility and pregnancy outcomes in malaria endemic areas.Pregnant women with asymptomatic malaria parasitaemia were recruited and divided into groups based on their inter-pregnancy intervals and malaria specific-IgG, body mass index, and birth weights were studied in the groups.The results showed that the P. falciparum specific-IgG concentration (f=3.52, p0.02), malaria parasites density (f=6.44, p0.001) and birth weights (f=7.36, p0.001) were significantly different amongst the groups with varying inter-pregnancy intervals. In addition, different levels of associations between variables such as 'inter-pregnancy intervals vs P. falciparum specific-IgG concentration' (r = 0.23, p0.05); 'malaria parasites density vs birth weight' (r = -0.84, p0.01) was observed.This study suggests that inter-pregnancy intervals could be one of the factors influencing dynamic serum concentrations of P. falciparum specific-IgG while malaria parasitaemia could be one of the factors affecting birth weights. Hence, observance of inter-pregnancy intervals has its own implications in malaria endemic areas.

In this study, the effects of infestation (with Schistosoma haematobium or hookworm) during host ageing on the serum levels of circulating immune complexes (CIC), C3, IgG, IgA and IgM were examined in residents of Omi dam area of Kogi state, Nigeria. S. haematobium-infested and hookworm-infested individuals showed no significant alteration in the levels of CIC, C3, IgG, IgA and IgM in comparison with controls. These levels were the same in infested subjects and controls even when the patients were pooled. Infested old people had the same concentrations of serum CIC, C3 IgG and IgM in comparison with infested young people but IgA levels were higher in the aged group (t=2.100; P0.05); and were significantly correlated with age (r=0.301; P0.05). No significant increase in CIC levels with rising age (r=0.123; P0.20) was observed in the overall population of infested subjects; and infestation in old age did not alter CIC, C3, IgG, IgA and IgM levels in comparison with uninfested young people. For the uninfested, IgG, IgA and IgM values were similar in the aged and the young but the levels of CIC were higher (t=2.156; P0.05; r=0.280; P0.05) and C3 lower (t=3.313; P0.01; r=-0.236; P0.10) in the aged. The results of this study suggest that the elevated CIC levels found in old people is age-related; and that the contribution of parasitic infestation to these raised levels is uncertain.

Levels of serum auto-antibody to DNA and soluble immune complex (SIC) were determined in the sera of 40 Nigerian school children with heavy urinary schistosomiasis (USS), 64 school children with light USS and 36 apparently healthy children as controls. Haemagglutination and polyethylene glycol precipitation (PEG) techniques were employed respectively. 75% of USS subjects with heavy infection, 59% of USS subjects with light infection, and 8% of apparently healthy controls had auto-antibodies to DNA in the serum samples. Moreso, the mean concentrations of auto-antibodies to DNA and SIC were significantly higher in USS subjects with heavy infection compared with USS subjects with light infection or the controls. Significant correlation existed between severity of S. haematobium infection (S. haematobium egg numbers/10 ml urine) and SIC (r=0.21, t=2.16) or auto-anti DNA antibodies (r=0.43, t=3.86). It could be concluded that SIC and anti DNA antibodies are induced by antigens from eggs of S. haematobium and that both SIC and anti DNA antibodies may be involved in the pathology of USS.

Serum concentrations of immunoglobulin classes (IgG, IgA and IgM), complement factor B (FB), 4th complement factor (C4) and circulating immune complexes (CIC) were determined in 34 Nigerians with chronic sinusitis and 37 apparently healthy age and sex matched controls by single radial immunodiffusion and polyethylene glycol precipitation methods, respectively. The mean serum IgG, IgA, C4, FB and CIC were significantly reduced in chronic sinusitis patients compared with the controls. The mean serum levels of IgG, IgM, C4 and FB were higher in male chronic sinusitis patients compared with female patients. In contrast the mean serum level of IgA was significantly reduced in chronic sinusitis patients. Only IgG and IgA showed significant correlation with the duration of chronic sinusitis. These findings in Nigerian patients suggest immuno-deficiency as one of the causes of chronic sinusitis in Nigerians, therefore routine serum immunoglobulin evaluation is recommended and if found deficient immunoglobulin replacement therapy is advocated for the treatment of such chronic sinusitis.

Leucocyte Migration Inhibition Factor (L-MIF) was measured in 41 children with marasmus, 19 with kwashiorkor, 5 with marasmic-kwashiorkor and 35 well-fed healthy children serving as controls. For L-MIF assay, two different antigens (live attenuated measles virus vaccine and diptheria pertussis tetanus (DPT) vaccine were used. Percentage migration indices obtained with the two antigens were significantly higher in the malnourished than in the well-fed healthy sex and age-matched controls (P0.01). The total serum protein and albumin concentrations were significantly reduced in the malnourished children compared with the controls (P0.01). Mean total leucocyte numbers were not significantly different in marasmic and marasmic-kwashiorkor children compared with the controls (P0.21).

Bacteria infections, parasitic infections and neutrophil phagocytic function were assessed in 60 urinary schistosomiasis (USS) subjects and 36 healthy controls. Only Salmonella was isolated from the blood samples of few USS subjects (3%) and controls (1%). The species of bacteria detected in the urine of USS and control subjects are Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis and Klebsiella. There was no significant difference in the proportion of the USS subjects with bacteriuria compared with the controls (X2 = 0.20, P0.20). Higher proportions of USS subjects compared with the controls were concurrently infected with Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworms, Giardia lambila and Taenia solium. In contrast, significantly higher proportion of the control subjects were concurrently infected with Plasmodium falciparum and Schistosoma mansoni. There was no significant reduction in neutrophil phagocytic function of USS subjects compared with the controls (P0.49). This study suggests that S. haematobium protects its host from certain blood dwelling parasites and that Nigeria USS subjects expressed adequate neutrophil phagocytic function. These may explain the absence of clinical manifestations of bacterial and viral infections in these subjects.

The prevalence of Rubella-IgG antibody was assessed in 152 Nigerian women consisting of 62 pregnant women. 82 non-pregnant women of childbearing age and 7 women who had suffered miscarriage. Rubella-IgG antibody was detected in sera of the female subjects by Immunocomb II Rubella IgG test kit (Orgenics, Israel) which is an indirect solid face Immunoassay (EIA). Rubella-IgG antibody was detected in 76% of pregnant women, 77% of non-pregnant women of childbearing age and 86% of women who had miscarriage. Similarly, the Rubella-IgG antibody titres of between 15 iu/ml and 120 iu/ml was encountered among the female subjects. Thus in general 77% of all the female subjects were positive for Rubella-IgG antibody while 23% had no detectable Rubella IgG antibody. There is need to protect this set of people considering the potential dangers of congenital anomalies associated with Rubella infection during pregnancy. The implications of the presence or absence of Rubella IgG antibody and titres are discussed.

Circulating soluble immune complexes (CIC), immunoglobulin classes (IgG, IgA, and IgM), acute phase proteins (alpha-l-fetoprotein and alpha-1-acid glycoprotein) and complement factors (C4 and C3c) levels were determined in 52 Nigerian patients with urinary schistosomiasis (USS) and 39 healthy subjects by polyethylene glycol precipitation and single radial immunodiffusion methods respectively. A considerably higher proportion of USS patients than the controls had elevated levels of soluble immune complexes. IgM, IgA and C3c levels were significantly higher in USS patients than the controls. However, serum concentration of C4 was significantly reduced in USS patients than the controls while that of IgG was not significantly reduced in these patients. The mean levels of alpha-l-fetoprotein and alpha-l-acid glycoprotein were comparable in the USS subjects and the controls. Correlation analysis showed association between S. haematobium egg numbers with serum concentration of IgM, C3c and CIC. These observations could be the results of increased rate of CIC formation, and inflammatory responses to schistosome antigens. The study concluded that IgM associated-CIC may be responsible for the immunopathology of chronic schistosomiasis.

Schistosome antigens (soluble egg antigen and adult worm antigen) and non-schistosome antigens (Bacille Calmette Guerin vaccine antigen and measles virus vaccine antigen) were used to assay for leucocyte migration inhibitory factors (LMIF) in Nigerian children with and without Schistosoma haematobium infection. The severity of S. haematobium infection was graded into light infection (1-49 eggs/ 10 ml urine) or heavy infection (more than or equal to 50 eggs/10 ml urine). The mean percentage migration indices were significantly reduced in heavily infected urinary schistosomiasis (USS) subjects compared with the controls or lightly infected subjects when non-antigens were used to stimulate LMIF production. When Schistosome antigens were used to stimulate LMIF production, there were no significant decreases in the % migration indices in heavily infected USS subjects compared with the light USS subjects. The mean percentage migration index was significantly increased when schistosome antigen was used to stimulate LMIF production in treated USS subjects compared with untreated USS subjects but the increase was not significant when non-schistosome antigen was used. The conclusion that could be drawn from this study is that LMIF assay using schistosome antigen(s) has epidemiological value in schistosomiasis.

Serum levels of immuno-globulin G, A, M, D and E were determined using single radial immuno-diffusion technique in 52 Nigerian primary school children with urinary schistosomiasis and 39 age and sex matched controls. The mean values of IgA, IgM and IgE in the school children with S. haematobium infection were significantly higher than in controls. These findings suggest that urinary schistosomiasis in these subjects was in the acute stage.

A study was carried out on 218 school children, aged 6-15 years; on 38 local dry cleaners, aged 25-47 years; and on 57 vehicle washers, aged 18-28 years, who were in frequent contact with a stream from an abandoned fish farm in Ibadan, Oyo State of Nigeria to determine the presence, prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis. Of the three categories examined for urinary schistosomiasis, school children had the highest prevalence (21.1%); followed by local dry cleaners at 18.4% and vehicle washers at 15.8%. Males among school children and vehicles washers were more infected at 24.8% and 15.8% respectively, while females among dry cleaners had more infection, 25.9%. Most of infected Nigerians had light infection (less than 50 S. haematobium eggs per 10 ml of urine). Eggs of S. mansoni were detected in urine of two male school children. These data show that prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis is directly dependent on frequency and duration of water contact and age, but independent of sex.