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Background/Objectives: We applied three dietary assessment methods and aimed at obtaining a set of physical, social and psychological variables that can discriminate those individuals who did not underreport ('never under-reporters'), those who underreported in one dietary assessment method ('occasional under-reporters') and those who underreported in two or three dietary assessment methods ('frequent under-reporters'). Participants/Methods: Sixty-five women aged 18-57 years were recruited for this study. Total energy expenditure was determined by doubly labelled water, and energy intake was estimated by three 24-h diet recalls, 3-day food records and a food frequency questionnaire. A multiple discriminant analysis was used to identify which of those variables better discriminated the three groups: body mass index (BMI), income, education, social desirability, nutritional knowledge, dietary restraint, physical activity practice, body dissatisfaction and binge-eating symptoms. Results: Twenty-three participants were 'never under-reporters'. Twenty-four participants were 'occasional under- reporters' and 18 were 'frequent under-reporters'. Four variables entered the discriminant model: income, BMI, social desirability and body dissatisfaction. According to potency indices, income contributed the most to the total discriminant power, followed in decreasing order by social desirability score, BMI and body dissatisfaction. Income, social desirability and BMI were the characteristics that mainly separated the 'never under-reporters' from the under-reporters (occasional or frequent). Body dissatisfaction better discriminated the 'occasional under-reporters' from the 'frequent under-reporters'. Conclusions: 'Frequent under-reporters' have a greater BMI, social desirability score, body dissatisfaction score and lower income. These four variables seemed to be able to discriminate individuals who are more prone to systematic under reporting. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2009.54; published online 15 July 2009 Keywords: under reporting; dietary assessment methods; doubly labelled water; energy intake, Introduction Many studies assessed the effect of body mass index (BMI), dietary restraint, body image and social desirability on underreporting, but some of these revealed contradictory results (Ard et al., [...]

Background/Objectives: The assessment of child feeding practices has received renewed attention through the development of an infant and child feeding index (ICFI). However, the advantages and shortcomings of such a summary index are still not well known. The aim of this study was to assess the usefulness of ICFI as an analytical tool (1) by studying its association with complementary food energy intake and mean micronutrient density adequacy (MMDA) and (2) by testing whether ICFI and its components are associated with length-for-age z-score (LAZ) of 6-23 months children in urban Madagascar. Subjects/Methods: ICFI was constructed using data from questionnaires on feeding practices and quantitative 24-h recalls (n=1589). Multivariate analysis was used to control for household wealth and other confounding factors. Results: ICFI was positively correlated with complementary food energy intake (P Conclusions: Findings suggest that the ICFI could be a useful analytical tool, which needs however to be constructed according to its final use and which should be adapted to each context. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2008.10; published online 13 February 2008 Keywords: index; child; feeding practices; growth; Madagascar, Introduction The development of child feeding indicators and indices has been receiving renewed attention since the publication of updated guiding principles for complementary feeding of young children (Dewey, 2003), which [...]

At the latitude of the Nordic countries, where there is almost no dermal formation of vitamin D during winter, dietary intake is required to avoid deficiency. Dietary intake is of the order of 4-5 [micro]g/day but varies widely. The lowest intake is seen among adolescents. Low levels of serum 25(OH)D have been found in population groups in all Nordic countries. The drop in 25(OH)D during the winter months may be considerable, falling below acceptable levels (50 nmol/L) in one half of the population. To ensure an acceptable vitamin D status is maintained in the population and to diminish the seasonal drop in 25(OH)D, the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2004 increased the vitamin D recommendation for the age group 2-60 years by 50% from 5 [micro]g/day to 7.5 [micro]g/day. To attain such an intake at the population level, public health actions, including information dissemination and increased fortification of foods, are necessary.

Objectives To identify misreporting among older rural adults using a prediction algorithm and to compare dietary patterns of underreporters and plausible reporters. Design In this cross-sectional study, diet information was assessed by five 24-hour recalls collected over 10 months. All foods were classified into 24 food subgroups. Demographic, health, and anthropometric data were collected via home visit. Setting Rural Pennsylvania. Subjects One hundred seventy-nine community-dwelling adults, aged 66 to 87 years. Statistical analysis Cluster analysis. Results Underreporters (n=43) were more likely than plausible reporters (n=133) to be overweight and less educated but did not differ by sex. Underreporters consumed fewer servings across the majority of food groups. Two dietary patterns were determined for all and plausible reporters, in both cases one of higher and one of lower nutrient density. Using only plausible reporters to determine dietary patterns was very similar to using all reporters. The correlation between energy intake and weight status was improved for plausible-reporting women, but not men. Conclusions Dietary patterns of plausible reporters were generally similar to that of all reporters; however, correlations with energy intake and weight status improved for women using only plausible reporters. Individuals may not accurately report dietary intake. Those obtaining diet reports should be aware of reporting errors before making decisions about dietary adequacy.

Objectives. We sought to quantify the impact of the 1998 US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) folic acid fortification policy by estimating folate intake at the population level. Methods. We analyzed total folate intake levels (from food and supplements) according to gender, age, and race/ethnicity, using data from 2 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. We measured pre- and postfortification folate intake distributions, adjusted for measurement error, and examined proportions of the population who reached certain thresholds of daily total folate intake. Results. Mean daily food and total folate intake increased by approximately 100 [micro]g/day after fortification. The proportion of women aged 15-44 years who consume more than 400 [micro]g/day of folate has increased since fortification, but has not yet reached the FDA's 50% target and varies by race/ethnicity from 23% to 33%. Among persons aged 65 years and older who may be at risk for masking a vitamin [B.sub.12] deficiency, the percentage who consume more than 1000 [micro]g/day (the 'tolerable upper intake level') has at least doubled among Whites and Black men, but has remained less than 5% for all groups. Conclusions. Since fortification, folic acid intake among the US population has increased, and there are substantial variations by age, gender, and race/ethnicity.

Objective: To assess the use of the Mini-Nutritional Assessment (MNA) in elderly orthopaedic patients. Design: An observation study assessing the nutritional status of female orthopaedic patients. Setting: The orthopaedic wards of the Royal Surrey County Hospital. Subjects: Forty-nine female patients aged 60-103y; dietary records were obtained for 41 subjects and 36 subjects gave a blood sample for biochemical analysis. Major outcome methods: MNA questionnaire, anthropometry, plasma albumin, transferrin, C-reactive protein (CRP) levels and dietary analyses. Results: The group as a whole had low mean values for body weight, albumin and transferrin and high CRP levels. In addition, the group had mean energy intakes well below the estimated average requirement (EAR) and mean intakes of vitamin D, magnesium, potassium, selenium and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) were below the lower reference nutrient intakes (LRNI). The MNA screening section categorized 69% of the patients as requiring a full assessment (scored 11 or below), but for the purposes of the study the MNA was completed on all patients. The MNA assessment categorized 16% of the group as &apos;malnourished&apos; (scored < 17 points), 47% as &apos;at risk&apos; (scored 17.5-23.5) and 37% as &apos;well nourished&apos; (scored >23.5). Significant differences were found between the malnourished and well nourished groups for body weight (P This was compared with the sensitivity and specificity of using a score of less than 23.5 on the MNA to predict malnourished individuals. Using this cut-off the sensitivity ranged from 75 to 100%, but the specificity declined to between 37 and 50%. Conclusions: The results suggest that the MNA is a useful diagnostic tool in the identification of elderly patients at risk from malnutrition and those who are malnourished in this hospital setting. Sponsorship: Nestle Clinical Nutrition, Croydon, Surrey. Descriptors: elderly; nutritional assessment; orthopaedic patients, Recent findings suggest that the prevalence of undernutrition in the free living elderly population is relatively low, with the recently published National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) of people aged [...]

Using cross-sectional data from Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, a multilevel analysis was performed to determine the extent of correlation of nutritional status between children in the same family and geographical area. Weight-for-age z-scores were used as a measure of nutritional status for children up to three years of age. The percentage of children who were under-weight ranged from 16 in Zimbabwe up to 36 in Nigeria. The effects of socioeconomic factors and individual characteristics on nutritional status between countries varied. However in all six countries, the child's age was the most important factor associated with nutritional status. A clustering effect at the household level was found in all six countries, ranging from 24 per cent in Tanzania and Zimbabwe to 40 per cent in Malawi. There was also a significant, but smaller, clustering effect at community level for Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Zambia.

Mexican American children ages 1-18 years were examined in order to compare health statistics with those recorded during the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, or NHANES. Research shows that Mexican American children tend to be shorter and heavier after preschool years than those children examined in the NHANES; implication for future health risks due to such factors as weight and stature are also discussed.

Researchers studied fat distribution in a urban sample of boys and girls between 4.5 and 19.5 years of age by means of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of five skinfolds. The first principal component revealed strong stability across age and sex and was related to central body fat distribution. Other components such as lower trunk fat, lateral-medial trunk fat, and upper-lower extremity fat showed poor stability due to age and sex. The first factor was only significantly higher for girls in lower socioeconomic group.

Objectives. This National Cancer Institute-funded study sought to increase fruit and vegetable consumption among women served by the WIC program in Maryland. Methods. Over a 2-year period, a multifaceted intervention program using a randomized crossover design sought to increase fruit and vegetable consumption at 16 WIC programs sites in Baltimore City and 6 Maryland counties. Participants were surveyed at baseline, 2 months postintervention, and 1 year later. Result. Two months postintervention, mean daily consumption had increased by 0.56 [+ or -] 0.11 servings in intervention participants and 0.13 [+ or -] 0.07 servings in control participants (P = .002). Intervention participants also showed greater changes in stages of change, knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy. Changes in consumption were closely related to number of nutrition sessions attended, baseline stage of change, race, and education. One year later, mean consumption had increased by an additional 0.27 servings in both intervention and control participants. Conclusions. Dietary changes to prevent cancer can be achieved and sustained in this hard-to-reach, low-income population. However, many obstacles must be overcome to achieve such changes. (Am J Public Health. 1998;88: 1161-1167)

Objectives. This study compared dietary risk factors among Southern-born and other Blacks in Central Harlem. Methods. A survey of residents of Central Harlem was use to compute a 'healthy diet' score for 621 subjects. Results. Southern-born respondents had the highest-risk diets. Although their numbers were small, Caribbean-born respondents, particularly those younger than 45 years, had the lowest-risk diets. Conclusions. The variation in diets in Central Harlem was considerable, with Southern-born Blacks at highest dietary risk for chronic diseases. These results remain to be tested elsewhere, as does the contribution of other chronic disease risk factors. (Am J Public Health. 1998;88: 1199-1202)

Research on nutritional assessment of high risk Mexican populations has provided a baseline for future dietary research among similar demographic samples. From studies using Mexican women in the 60-94 age range, the number of dietary days required for a 95% confidence level was found to be 16 days for cholesterol, 10 for fiber, 8 for fat, 7 for protein, 4 for carbohydrate and 3 for energy., Tijuana Medical School, Universdad Autonoma de Baja California, Instituto de Nutricion de Baja California, Ex-ejido Tampico s/n, La Mesa de Otay, Tijuana, BC Mexico Inter and intraindividual intake variance is [...]

Dietitians should be culturally sensitive to varying ethnic groups and the course 'Cross-Cultural Dietary Patterns' helps them train for this. While the course does not cover all the possible ethnic variation it introduces students to the global variety. Ethnicity will be an important component in relevant menu planning and nutrition balancing in the fast changing US population.

Interviews with caregivers who accompanied children to Head Start indicated that they appreciated the varied ethnic foods and the nutritional education. There were variations in responses to questions about saving time and money among the various ethnicities. The Head Start program should respond to the issues emerging from such studies to be relevant to various ethnic groups.

Literature on the nutritional status of Black elders indicates that their nutrient intake is below recommended dietary standards. It is also less that that for whites and the ethnic differences are supported ny anthropometric, clinical and biochemical analyses. The area needs to be studied further as there is no clear data linking this lowered nutritional level to socioeconomic or other factors.

The relative contributions of inter- and intrapopulation variance to the total variability in nutrient intake was calculated from data gathered from five Public Health Center districts in Japan. Findings indicated that the contribution of interpopulation variance varied depending on the nutrient. Interpopulation variance can be employed for the estimation of the range of exposure in ecological research to analyze the heterogeneity of study populations gathered for individual-based studies. This will allow for an easier analysis of data from multiple populations.

The purpose of the study was to examine fruit and vegetable intake patterns among American Indian and Alaska Native adolescents and to assess psychosocial factors and health behaviors related to inadequate consumption. The study was conducted in nonurban schools from eight Indian Health Service Areas in the U.S.A total sample of 13,454 7th - through 12th-grade American-Indian and Alaska-Native youths living on or near reservations were given, in classroom settings, a revised version of the Minnesota Adolescent Health Survey. The health questionnaire assessed fruit and vegetable consumption patterns and psychosocial variables and health-related behaviors. The results indicated that fruit and vegetable consumption was below the recommended amounts. Less than daily consumption of vegetables was reported by 30% of adolescents and less than daily consumption of fruits was reported by 20% of youths. Psychosocial and health behavior risk associated with inadequate intake included being overweight, low family connectedness, poor school achievement, poor perceived health status, and tobacco use. Our study shows that fruit and vegetable consumption is low among American-Indian and Alaska-Native youths. More attention needs to be placed on developing culturally appropriate interventions to promote healthy eating patterns and addressing factors related to inadequate intake.

The influence of demography and income distribution on the intake of total fat, carbohydrates, cholesterol, vitamins A and C, and calcium was investigated by estimating intake functions for these nutrients across different social and racial classes. Results indicate that the differences across race and income classes in health perception results in a differential in nutrient intakes among these groups. Further, the income limitation of the low-income groups poses significant hindrance to access to healthy diets.

The objective of the study was to assess the prevalence of obesity and/or undernutrition and evaluate diet and activity patterns among schoolchildren from an ethnically diverse low income urban population. A cross-sectional survey of 498 children aged 9-12 y from 24 schools in low income multiethnic neighborhoods in Montreal, Canada was undertaken. Height, weight, dietary intake, physical activity record, and lifestyle and demographic characteristics were measured. There was no evidence of undernutrition because linear growth was appropriate for age, but 39.4% of children were overweight (>85th percentile NHANES II). Dietary fat intake was higher in children from single-parent families (P < 0.001) and those with mothers born in Canada. Intake of vitamins A, C, iron and folate was directly related to income sufficiency. Children who did more physical activity had significantly higher intakes of energy, calcium, iron, zinc and fiber but were not heavier. Dietary intake was systematically underreported among overweight children, i.e., their reported intakes did not meet calculated energy needs. This underreporting makes it difficult to attribute the accumulated energy imbalance to either energy intake or expenditure. KEY WORDS: dietary intake schoolchildren obesity low income ethnicity

We estimated the variability among nations in the prevalence of stunting and wasting, evaluated which national factors are associated with stunting and wasting and examined the relationship of stunting with wasting. The World Health Organization Global Database on Child Growth, a comprehensive conceptual model and a database of national factors were used with variance components and regression analyses. There was substantial variability among nations and among provinces within nations. Most national variability for stunting (76%) and wasting (66%) was explained by national factors and geographic region. Higher energy availability, female literacy and gross product were the most important factors associated with lower prevalence of stunting. The association of health expenditures and stunting differed by region. Higher immunization rate and, for Asia only, energy availability were the most important factors associated with lower prevalence of wasting. Regional differences in the relationship between stunting and wasting were accounted for by national factors. Some factors associated with stunting and wasting differ at the national level. Child malnutrition within a household is greatly influenced by issues at national and provincial levels, and intervention should be considered at all three levels. KEY WORDS: stunting wasting malnutrition humans children

Introduction In the developed world the commonest nutritional problem in adulthood is obesity [1, 2], although in elderly people undernutrition is an increasingly recognized problem [3] and is associated with [...]

The study revealed that higher fat, cholesterol, saturated fatty acid and mono-unsaturated fatty acid intake in men are insignificant once energy intake is accounted for. Hegsted Scoring shows that the dietary practice of men has a greater cholesterol-raising effect compared to women. Frequent soya bean and green tea intake, consumption of low fat milk, avoiding fatty foods, and use of different cooking oils did not influence lowering of plasma lipids.

Gender differences in nutrient and food intake were examined in Mexican Nutrition CRSP (Collaborative Research Support Program) infants (N = 75), preschoolers (N = 80), and school children (N = 91). No significant gender differences in dietary quality or quantity were seen for infants and preschoolers. For school children, the contribution of various foods to total energy intake (dietary quality) was also quite similar for girls and boys. Equity in dietary quality remained even under conditions of economic and demographic stress. Nevertheless, school girls consumed significantly less energy per day than boys ([approximately]300 kcal/d or 1.3 mJ/d), and less of all micronutrients examined. Gender differences in estimated basal metabolic rates of school children were slight ([approximately]20 kcal/d), and body composition and size were similar. When energy intakes were expressed as a percent of estimated requirement (calculated from age, sex and weight using WHO/FAO/UNU equations), intakes were adequate and not significantly different between girls [Mathematical Expression Omitted] and boys [Mathematical Expression Omitted]. Playground observations showed girls to be less active than boys, which may reflect both cultural and biological influences. Apparently due to this lower activity, school girls consumed less energy, and may have been at much higher risk than boys of micronutrient deficiency. The lower food intakes of girls did not appear to be due to purposeful dietary discrimination, but rather to culturally patterned sex roles involving lower activity. Key words - gender differences, food intake, children, dietary quality, malnutrition, playground observations, Mexico

The literature indicates mixed results regarding the impact of income and other variables on the age and gender standardized height-for-age of children. This paper uses data from Maputo, Mozambique to show that the impact of household resources or health inputs may be masked if diverse age groups are aggregated. For example, increases in household incomes affect only the nutritional status of children two years of age and older. Conversely, for younger children, but not the older ones, mother's education is a significant determinant of anthropometric measures of nutritional status. This implies that education and efforts to improve childcare practices can be targeted to mothers of younger children, but that these children will not achieve improved linear growth from income-support programs, unlike older children. Key words - nutrition, health, income, Africa

Objective This study explored the usefulness of cluster analysis in identifying food choice patterns of three groups of adults in relation to their energy intake. Design Food frequency data were converted to percentage of total energy from 38 food groups and entered into a cluster analysis procedure. Subjects in the emerging food group patterns were compared in terms of weight status, demographics, and the nutrition composition of their usual diet. Setting Data were collected as part of three studies in two US metropolitan areas using identical protocols. Participants were university employees (103 women and 99 men) who volunteered for a reliability study of health behavior questionnaires and moderately obese volunteers (223 women and 101 men) to two weight-loss studies who were recruited by newspaper advertisements. Statistical analysis performed Subjects were clustered according to food energy sources using the FASTCLUS procedure in the Statistical Analysis System. One-way analysis of variance and [[Chi].sup.2] analysis were then performed to compare the weight status, nutrient intakes, and demographics of the food patterns. Results Six food pattern clusters were identified. Subjects in the two clusters associated with high consumption of pastry and meat had significantly higher fat intakes (P=.0001). Subjects in two other clusters, those associated with high intake of skim milk and a broad distribution of energy sources had significantly higher micronutrient levels (P=.0001). Body mass index and the distribution of gender were also significantly different across clusters. Conclusions The success of cluster analysis in identifying dietary exposure categories with unique demographic and nutritional correlates suggests that the approach may be useful in epidemiologic studies that examine conditions such as obesity, and in the design of nutrition interventions.

Objective To develop a new dietary variety score (DVS) and link it to other measures of diet quality, including a modified diet quality index (DQI). Subjects The subjects were 24 healthy young (ages 20 to 30 years) and 24 healthy older (ages 60 to 75 years) adults, including 24 men and 24 women. Their dietary intake assessments were based on one 24-hour food recall interview and 14 consecutive days of food records. Design and measures Energy and nutrient intakes were estimated using Nutritionist IV software. DVS was based on the cumulative number of different foods consumed over the 15-day period. DQI was a 5-point scale based on conformity with the key US dietary recommendations. Full score was awarded for diets deriving 30% or less of energy from fat, 10% or less of energy from saturated fat, more than 50% of energy from carbohydrate, and containing less than 300 mg cholesterol and 2,400 mg sodium per day. Analytic measures included analyses of variance, correlation analyses, and [[Chi].sup.2] tests. Results Older subjects consumed more varied diets than did young subjects. Higher DVS values were linked positively to vitamin C intakes and negatively to the consumption of salt, sugar, and saturated fat. However, a high DVS was not linked to a high score on the DQI in this subject sample. Discussion/conclusions Few studies have addressed the issue of how many different foods constitute a varied diet. The present classification scheme offers a new way of assessing dietary variety at the individual or group level. Measures of dietary variety may represent an additional facet of diet quality and their relationship to selected health outcomes should be examined further.

Acetic and propionic acids, produced by colonic fermentation of unabsorbed carbohydrates, may influence systemic lipid metabolism. To determine whether the ratio of the concentrations of acetate to propionate in peripheral serum of fasting humans was related to serum cholesterol, we studied 62 men [age 45 [+ or -] 17 y (mean [+ or -] SD), range 19-74 y; body mass index 25.0 [+ or -] 2.8 kg/[m.sup.2]] and 69 women [43 [+ or -] 18 y, (range, 18-77 y); body mass index 23.0 [+ or -] 3.1 kg/[m.sup.2]] with normal serum lipid concentrations. The concentrations of serum acetate, propionate and butyrate (means [+ or -] SD) were similar in men (98 [+ or -] 33, 3.8 [+ or -] 1.5 and 2.3 [+ or -] 1.5/[micro]mol/L, respectively) and women (92 [+ or -] 38, 3.9 [+ or -] 1.9 and 2.3 [+ or -] 1.6 [micro]mol/L). There were significant positive relationships between the serum acetate:propionate ratio and total cholesterol (r = 0.466, P = 0.0002) and LDL cholesterol (r = 0.384, P = 0.0023) in men, but in women the relationships were not significant (R = 0.174, P = 0.15 and r = 0.135, P = 0.27, respectively). The relationships in men remained significant after adjustment for age and body mass index. These data support the hypothesis that, at least in men, colonic short-chain fatty acids influence systemic lipid metabolism. The relationships among the factors influencing colonic short-chain fatty acid production, the enterohepatic circulation of endogenous estrogens, dietary phytoestrogens and blood lipids in women, however, need further clarification. INDEXING KEY WORDS: humans, short-chain fatty acids, colonic fermentation, cholesterol

Nutritional well-being is integral to successful aging. Successful aging, in turn, results from a broadly defined continuum of care that promotes quality of life, independence, and health. Medical and other [...]

Anthropometric, mortality, and population data presented by Svedberg [1990] in this journal suggested a slight anti-male bias in undernutrition in sub-Saharan Africa. This article re-analyses some of the same anthropometric, [...]

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to compare energy and macronutrient intakes between adult Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, mainland Puerto Ricans, and non-Hispanics. Methods. Age-specific mean intakes were estimated based on 24-hour recalls from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (HHANES) (1982 to 1984) and the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II) (1976 to 1980) and were compared with the use of t tests. Results. Mexican Americans had higher total fat, saturated fat, and monounsaturated fat intakes than did Puerto Ricans and older Cuban Americans. Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans had similar intakes, except for younger Cuban Americans, who had higher total and saturated fat and lower carbohydrate intakes. Cholesterol intakes among Mexican American men and 60- to 74-year-old women were higher than those among other Hispanic groups. Carbohydrate and protein intakes were higher among Hispanic groups compared with those among non-Hispanics while total fat intakes were generally lower. Conclusions. Since macronutrient intakes differ between Hispanic groups, dietary research, recommendations, and interventions should be targeted to each group individually. Older Puerto Rican and Cuban American adults met population guidelines for reducing chronic disease risk for more macronutrients than any other group. (Am J Public Health. 1995;85:684-689), Nutritional intakes vary among Hispanic groups, so separate dietary recommendations should be made for Cuban Americans, Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans to reduce the risk of disease. Data was obtained from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (HHANES) conducted from 1982 to 1984. Respondents were adults between the ages of 20 and 74. Carbohydrate and protein intakes are higher among Hispanic groups than among non-Hispanics. Cuban Americans consume more protein as a percent of calories and less fat than the other Hispanic groups, and Puerto Ricans and older Cuban Americans consume more carbohydrates. Younger Cubans and Mexican Americans consume more saturated fat and fewer carbohydrates than older Cubans and Puerto Ricans. Fat and cholesterol intake reduction is recommended, along with an increase in carbohydrates consumption.

The demographic population shift from rural to urban communities in developing countries has spawned problems concerning food contamination, food habits, higher consumption of street foods and access to health care. The similarities and differences in diet, nutrition and health effects of diet and lifestyle between rural residents and urban poor have remained largely unexplored, despite the significance of such knowledge in designing health and nutrition programs for the urban poor.

Both ethnic background and individual personality play a role in determining choice of food among teenagers, according to a survey of food choice among Asian and Caucasian adolescents at a school in West London, UK. A culture has developed which identifies with both British and Asian customs. Religious practice relating to food is the most common difference between Asians and Causcasians regarding acceptability of food.

The food choices of Asians are influenced by their ethnic origins and religious beliefs. The Asian diet has been associated with diseases such as diabetes mellitus, rickets and coronary heart disease. Chronic diseases, such as cancer and coronary heart disease, are known to have long time delays before the symptoms appear, so emphasising the importance of health and nutritional education for the young. The diets of young people are influenced by pyschological and social factors and health education programmes cannot be effective unless these aspects are taken into account.

Socioeconomic status has been shown to be associated with blood pressure and hypertension in Blacks; as socioeconomic status decreases, blood pressure increases. It is not clear precisely what biological, psychosocial, and/or environmental factors may contribute to this relationship. In the present investigation, the dietary factors that may be associated with the low socioeconomic status/higher blood pressure relationship were examined. A total of 1,784 Black men and women between the ages of 25 to 40 years who resided in North Carolina were studied. Dietary intake of the electrolytes sodium, potassium, and calcium were determined through household interviews that included a food frequency questionnaire geared to the subjects' regional and ethnic food preferences. Educational level and occupation were used to determine socioeconomic status. Potassium and calcium intake increased as socioeconomic status increased. Sodium intake was generally high for all subjects and did not vary with socioeconomic status. Higher socioeconomic status was associated with the belief that diet affects risk for disease, which was demonstrated by reduced use of added salt and overall reduction in sodium use. Nutritional beliefs and the consumption of electrolytes are therefore associated with socioeconomic status in Black adults. This helps to explain why blood pressure is inversely related with socioeconomic status in this population. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.)

It has been widely against that children and females are most severely affected during periods of food scarcity. This proposition is tested using dietary and anthropometric data from the Andean community of Nunoa, Peru. Contrary to expectation, children (ages 12 years and under) are relatively protected from seasonal food scarcity while adults experience severe caloric stress. Anthropometric measures of nutritional status corroborate the dietary analysis, indicating significantly better nutritional status in children. Sex differences in dietary adequacy are not evident. Adult males, however, have significantly poorer measures of nutritional status than adult females. These differences in dietary adequacy and nutritional status reflect adaptations to marked seasonality in work demands and energy availability.

National sample surveys, containing measurements of the weights and heights of children along with other socioeconomic modules, represent one of the important sources of information for nutritional surveillance. The potential uses of such information are political sensitization, targeting by geographic area, targeting by socioeconomic group, and identifying the most promising intervention options according to the presumed causes of malnutrition. The latter two applications depend upon the ability to detect stable associations between nutritional status and socioeconomic factors. This paper examines the extent to which these planning applications are affected by variation in the ecology of malnutrition across different segments of society, using Malawi's National Sample Survey of Agriculture (NSSA). The NSSA is nationally representative of Malawi's smallholder sector and contains information on anthropometrics of underfives and various socioeconomic characteristics of their households. This analysis is based upon 3000 households containing at least one underfive, with one child per household being selected for analysis. Height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ) are calculated using WHO standards, and analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Variation in nutritional ecology is investigated by examining statistical interactions among socioeconomic variables as they relate to HAZ and by comparing ANOVA models constructed within several sample strata. These strata are defined according to geographic region, size of cultivated area, child's sex, child's age and, for a subsample, ethnic/religious identification. The results demonstrate that significant two-way interactions exist between region, cultivated area, household labor availability and age of the child. For the total sample HAZ declines with increasing cultivated area among young children ( It is concluded that significant variation in nutritional ecology does exist between various segments of society. This limits the usefulness of national sample surveys for selecting intervention options and for targeting interventions according to socioeconomic characteristics.