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Generating rich data from interviews for a qualitative study can be difficult to operationalize; especially when difficulties establishing rapport, power imbalances, and participant factors threaten the interview process and quality of data. The aim of this methods article is to (a) discuss the value of incorporating visual elicitation tools or tasks within semistructured or in-depth qualitative interviews to enhance the depth of data generated and (b) provide a specific example of how this is planned and executed within the context of an applied qualitative health research study.

Aim: To describe the nature of care received by patients measured through the Caring Behaviours Inventory., Background: Professional nursing practice combines two dimensions of caring: instrumental care and expressive care. Instrumental care focuses on physical health needs, in terms of efficiency and employs interventions based on evidence. Expressive care is patient-centred and based on the interpersonal relationship. It requires caring attitudes that include respect, kindness, sensitivity and patience. The Caring Behaviours Inventory is a tool designed to assess the care expressed through the behaviours nurses perform, contextualised within the Jean Watson's Theory of Human Caring., Methods: A systematic review following PRISMA recommendations. Scopus, PubMed and CINAHL databases were consulted using the keywords "Caring Behaviours Inventory" AND "Nursing". The Joanna Briggs Institute tool was used for the quality appraisal. A conceptual analysis and a thematic synthesis were performed for data extraction., Results: 11 articles were selected. Three categories were identified: nature of caring, congruence between perceived care by patients and nurses, and factors associated with the expression of care., Discussion: An emphasis on care of an instrumental nature was identified. The perception of patients differs from that of nurses, patients perceive a lower level of expressive caring than the one nurses believe to deliver. Caring behaviours are affected by the working environment, nurses' emotional intelligence and coping skills, and socio-demographic characteristics., Conclusion: This paper described the findings of previous research regarding the nature of care that is transmitted and received in clinical practice. Results highlight an emphasis on the instrumental aspect of the nursing care according to the patients' perception., Relevance to Clinical Practice: Findings summarised in this review could contribute to a better understanding of the nursing care. Results reported in this paper could also help to improve the quality of care delivered by nurses as well as patient-centeredness., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Researchers may find it difficult to transition from conducting descriptive, mechanistic, and associational studies to developing interventions based on those findings because little guidance is available. In this article, we present the Obesity-Related Behavioral Intervention Trials (ORBIT) model and describe its applicability in designing behaviorally oriented interventions for women. Adapted from drug development research on the translation of basic laboratory research to clinical practice, the ORBIT model emphasizes the pre-efficacy testing phases of intervention development. Phase I is focused on the definition and refinement of the intervention and incorporates various study designs, including experimental, observational, qualitative, and adaptive design. Phase II involves the use of single-group proof-of-concept, feasibility, and preliminary efficacy studies to show the feasibility and capacity of the intervention to produce change in an intermediate endpoint. Phase III involves the use of randomized controlled trials to test the efficacy of the intervention. We illustrate how the ORBIT model could be applied in a hypothetical intervention to increase a woman's sense of control of her life before behavioral weight loss efforts in the postpartum period., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Qualitative longitudinal research (QLR) provides temporal understanding of the human response to health, illness, and the life course. However, little guidance is available for conducting QLR in the nursing literature. The purpose of this review is to describe the methodological status of QLR in nursing. With the assistance of a medical librarian, we conducted a thorough search circumscribed to qualitative, longitudinal nursing studies of patients' and care-givers' experiences published between 2006 and 2016. The methodological quality of the 74 reviewed studies varied tremendously; many reports lacked sufficient detail in reporting on sampling and attrition, retention strategies, and data collection and analysis, making it difficult for readers to evaluate the credibility and transferability of study findings. Based on the strengths and limitations of the studies reviewed and findings in the literature, we provide recommendations for enhancing the reporting of the research process as a supplement to the standards for qualitative research more broadly. These recommendations are offered in the spirit of encouraging dialogue among colleagues and assisting journal reviewers and editors in their evaluation of QLR., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Researchers are obligated to do no harm to participants of research. Conflicts in relationships can cause negative well-being; therefore, insight is needed into the particular ethical considerations that arise when conducting joint interviews with close relatives or family members simultaneously in the healthcare setting., Aim: To collect and share knowledge related to ethical considerations conducting joint interviews., Design and Methods: A literature review inspired by the integrative review method was performed. Data were retrieved through a structured search in PubMed, CINAHL and the Philosopher's Index and Academic Search Premier for articles published in English from 1980 to 2016 and included 18 articles, of a possible 2153. Article content was assessed line-by-line, and ethical considerations were extracted and organized in three subgroups regarding: Planning joint interviews; Conduction joint interviews and Reporting on joint interviews Findings: Participants should be offered the best terms for a constructive, on-going relationship after the joint interview has ended. This obligates the researcher to ensure a safe environment during the joint interview and create a delicate balance between the needs of the participants, using nonconfrontational techniques that foster equal and neutral but dedicated attention to all parties, before, during and after the joint interviews., Conclusion: Specific ethical considerations should be taken into account before, during and after joint interviewing. Further research is needed before a final conclusion can be drawn., (© 2017 Nordic College of Caring Science.)

Grounded Theory (GT) has undergone many transformations since its proposition as a research method in the 1960s. As a result of these changes, three different GT approaches have been outlined: classic, straussian and constructivist ground theory, each with its peculiarities, but mainly concerning data analysis. Thus, this study aimed to describe and compare the data analysis process adopted by the different methodological perspectives of GT. The text is organized into two topics. Firstly, we present the common and differentiating characteristics of the three methodological perspectives of GT. In sequence, the data analysis system adopted in each of the GT methodological perspectives is described and exemplified, varying between two and three stages, and may or may not include the use of the paradigmatic model. Thus, this study provides support for understanding the different data analysis systems adopted in GT, which may contribute to the rigor and scientific quality of nursing research adopting this method.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the daily diary method (DDM) for assessing family-staff conflicts in nursing homes, to provide descriptive information on conflict, and to examine the relationship between conflict and mood among family caregivers., Methods: Participants were nine caregivers that experienced conflict with staff on an ongoing basis. They were contacted daily by telephone for 14 days and were asked (1) whether a conflict had occurred, (2) to describe the severity and type of conflict, and (3) to rate their positive and negative affect., Results: Compliance was excellent with no attrition, and there were only 2 missing data points over 126 potential observations. Conflicts occurred on 22% of the days, were rated as moderately severe, and were related to poor resident care, lack of information, and staff attitudes. Participants reported significantly lower positive affect (p < .05) and higher negative affect (p < .001) on conflict versus no-conflict days. Exit interviews indicated positive attitudes towards the DDM., Conclusions: These results support the feasibility of the DDM for providing an in-depth understanding of family-staff conflict and its relationship to caregivers' mood., Clinical Implications: The DDM would ideally be used as an outcome measure in studies that assess interventions that target high-conflict family-staff relationships.

This discussion paper is aimed to map content analysis in the qualitative paradigm and explore common methodological challenges. We discuss phenomenological descriptions of manifest content and hermeneutical interpretations of latent content. We demonstrate inductive, deductive, and abductive approaches to qualitative content analysis, and elaborate on the level of abstraction and degree of interpretation used in constructing categories, descriptive themes, and themes of meaning. With increased abstraction and interpretation comes an increased challenge to demonstrate the credibility and authenticity of the analysis. A key issue is to show the logic in how categories and themes are abstracted, interpreted, and connected to the aim and to each other. Qualitative content analysis is an autonomous method and can be used at varying levels of abstraction and interpretation., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this paper we focus on important considerations when planning and conducting qualitative interviews on sensitive topics. Drawing on experiences of conducting interviews with dementia caregivers, a framework of essential elements in qualitative interviewing was developed to emphasize study participants' needs while also providing guidance for researchers. Starting with a definition of sensitive research, the framework includes preparing for interviews, interacting with gatekeepers of vulnerable groups, planning for interview timing, and location, building relationships and conducting therapeutic interactions, protecting ethically vulnerable participants, and planning for disengagement. This framework has the potential to improve the effectiveness of sensitive interviewing with vulnerable groups. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., (© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Paul Ricoeur's hermeneutic phenomenology has proved to be very helpful in guiding nursing researchers' qualitative analysis of interview transcripts. Modifying Ricoeur's philosophy, a number of nursing researchers have developed their own interpretive methods and shared them, along with their experience, with research community. Major contributors who published papers directly presenting their modifications of Ricoeur's theory include Rene Geanellos (2000), Lena Wiklund, Lisbet Lindholm and Unni Å. Lindström (2002), Anders Lindseth and Astrid Norberg (2004) and Pia Sander Dreyer and Birthe D Pedersen (2009). The aim of this article was to delineate differences among these methods. Descriptive presentation of each method side by side makes clear the differences among them. In addition, Ricoeur's hermeneutic theory is portrayed and compared with the modifications. It is believed that differences that are found can stimulate further thoughts on how to apply Ricoeur's theory in qualitative research in nursing., (© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Participant observation (PO) is an important method of data collection used in a variety of research methodologies. PO can inform theory development by providing understanding of participants' behaviors and the contexts that influence their behaviors. Because theory development is important in grounded theory studies, we emphasize theoretical contributions of PO while interrogating the challenges of using PO, in particular, attending to informed consent. We use the exemplar of a mid-range theory about nursing practice with hospitalized older adults to highlight contributions of PO to category development. While acknowledging theoretical contributions, we explore challenges entailed in observations where consenting participants interact with vulnerable patients and a changing cast of health care professionals in dynamic contexts. Reflexivity about interactions with vulnerable individuals, as well as other actions to avoid compromising voluntary consent, enhances contributions of PO., (© The Author(s) 2015.)

Observation is a research data-collection method used generally to capture the activities of participants as well as when and where things are happening in a given setting. It checks description of the phenomena against what the researcher perceives to be fact in a rich experiential context. The method's main strength is that it provides direct access to the social phenomena under consideration. It can be used quantitatively or qualitatively, depending on the research question. Challenges in using observation relate to adopting the role of participant or non-participant researcher as observer. This article discusses some of the complexities involved when nurse researchers seek to collect observational data on social processes in naturalistic settings using unstructured or structured observational methods in qualitative research methodology. A glossary of research terms is provided.

Grounded theory is a popular research approach in health care and the social sciences. This article provides a description of grounded theory methodology and its key components, using examples from published studies to demonstrate practical application. It aims to demystify grounded theory for novice nurse researchers, by explaining what it is, when to use it, why they would want to use it and how to use it. It should enable nurse researchers to decide if grounded theory is an appropriate approach for their research, and to determine the quality of any grounded theory research they read.

This case study describes the experiences of a novice correctional nurse researcher's application of the recommended strategies from the correctional literature to improve the conduct of research in a correctional institution. An innovative booster intervention was implemented and evaluated as a pilot study in a state correctional institution. Correctional nurse researchers encounter many challenges when conducting research in a correctional facility. This case study shares challenges that persisted and concludes by recommending ways to strengthen and improve on learned strategies proposed by experienced correctional nurse researchers.

Background: The concept of moral distress has been the subject of nursing research for the past 30 years. Recently, there has been a call to move from developing an understanding of the concept to developing interventions to help ameliorate the experience. At the same time, the use of the term moral distress has been critiqued for a lack of clarity about the concepts that underpin the experience., Discussion: Some researchers suggest that a closer examination of how socio-political structures influence healthcare delivery will move moral distress from being seen as located in the individual to an experience that is also located in broader healthcare structures. Informed by new thinking in relational ethics, we draw on research findings from neuroscience and attachment literature to examine the reciprocal relationship between structures and agents and frame the experience of moral distress., Conclusion: We posit moral distress as a form of relational trauma and subsequently point to the need to better understand how nurses as moral agents are influenced by-and influence-the complex socio-political structures they inhabit. In so doing, we identify this reciprocity as a framework for interventions., (© The Author(s) 2014.)

Although hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is a valuable treatment in many life-threatening pediatric disorders, a large number of children who receive hematopoietic stem cell transplantation are faced with a variety of physical and psychological problems throughout this process. In this study, we explored the lived experiences of these children during their treatment to provide a better understanding of their main concerns, emotions, and expectations. The participants were six children, aged between 6 and 17 years, who underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Data were collected through individual, in-depth, and semistructured interviews. Using interpretive phenomenological analysis, the findings revealed that the children experienced "transplantation rejoicing" in this "difficult passage", which was associated with "deepening of family ties". Awareness of these experiences, feelings, and concerns can help in the development of more professional interventions to provide children with holistic care during their hospitalization., (© 2014 Wiley Publishing Asia Pty Ltd.)

Aim: To introduce the biographical narrative interpretive method (BNIM) to nurse researchers in search of a new methodology and method., Background: Listening to and interpreting the narratives of patients is a core feature of nursing. Research methodologies and methods frequently do not fully take into account the historical, psycho-social and biographical dynamics of people's lives., Data Sources: This paper draws from the experiences of both authors who have previously utilised the BNIM method, as well as sourcing relevant literature., Review Methods: This is a methodology paper that reviews the historical context of BNIM and provides an overview of its potential application for nursing research. Discussion The core assumptions and analytic strategy of BNIM focus on three inter-related facets: the person's whole life history or story (biography), how they tell it (narrative) and the social interpretation (interpretive). BNIM uses a unique interviewing technique to elicit an uninterrupted story from participants. The BNIM analytic tool is formulaic and uses nine stages to analyse individual cases. A tenth stage helps with analysis across cases., Conclusion: BNIM methodology and methods empower participants to articulate the vicissitudes of their life and experiences of illness while also providing the researcher with a framework for data analysis and interpretation to give meaning to individuals' life stories., Implications for Research/practice: The BNIM interview technique and analytic framework are useful tools to help with an in-depth qualitative exploration of life stories in context.

Aim: To deconstruct how Charmaz's constructivist grounded theory (CGT) evolved from the original ideas of Glaser and Strauss, and to explore how CGT is similar to and different from the original grounded theory (GT)., Background: The origins of GT date to 1967 with Glaser and Strauss's study of the treatment of dying individuals, applying an inductive method allowing for the development of theory without the guidance of a preconceived theory. CGT moves away from the positivism of the Glaserian and Straussian GT schools, approaching GT through a constructivist lens that addresses how realities are made., Data Sources: This article does not involve the collection and analysis of primary data; instead, academic literature written by leaders in the field of GT was reviewed to generate the ideas presented., Review Methods: Comprehensive literature review drawing on the 'integrative review' principles., Discussion: When selecting a GT approach, the possibility of a congruence between the chosen methodology and the worldviews of the researcher's discipline and own outlook should be considered., Conclusion: The differences among the various schools of GT lie in their overarching goals and their perspectives of the nature of reality., Implications for Research/practice: Considering the alignment between the constructivist worldview and the field of nursing, CGT offers a valuable methodology for researchers in this area.

Aim: To highlight issues and challenges faced in recruitment and interviewing during a study that sought to explore the transition of nurses into academic life and the associated ethical implications., Background: This paper explores the challenges faced in conducting research where the potential participants are peers and workplace colleagues. There are advantages when conducting research with those among whom a pre-existing relationship is shared. However, difficulties can also arise., Review Methods: A methodological review was undertaken. Key database searches included CINAHL, MEDLINE, PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar using the keywords as search terms. Studies were included if they described in detail issues surrounding qualitative interviewing of peers and colleagues., Discussion: Management of the issues involved is discussed, with emphasis on boundaries, trust and rapport, the use of self-disclosure and maintaining confidentiality., Conclusion: Research involving peers and colleagues has received relatively little consideration in the literature. There are difficulties associated with interviewing participants with whom the researcher has a pre-existing and ongoing relationship in the same organisation. To ensure ethical conduct, strategies can be used to mitigate negative situations such as issues surrounding dual roles, practising reflexivity, trust and rapport, self-disclosure and confidentiality., Implications for Research/practice: It is imperative that dual roles are declared and acknowledged. Researchers need to be mindful of the difficulties that may occur and prioritise participants' confidentiality and privacy.

Aim: To describe the challenges in combining two data sets during grounded theory analysis., Background: The use of grounded theory in nursing research is common. It is a suitable method for studying human action and interaction. It is recommended that many alternative sources of data are collected to create as rich a dataset as possible., Data Sources: Data from interviews with people with diabetes (n=19) and their family members (n=19)., Review Methods: Combining two data sets., Discussion: When using grounded theory, there are numerous challenges in collecting and managing data, especially for the novice researcher. One challenge is to combine different data sets during the analysis. There are many methodological textbooks about grounded theory but there is little written in the literature about combining different data sets., Conclusion: Discussion is needed on the management of data and the challenges of grounded theory., Implications for Research/practice: This article provides a means for combining different data sets in the grounded theory analysis process.

Aim: To adapt research strategies involving adolescents in a grounded theory qualitative research study by conducting email rather than face-to-face interviews., Background: Adolescent culture relies heavily on text-based communication and teens prefer interactions mediated through technology. Traditional qualitative research strategies need to be rethought when working with adolescents. Adapting interviewing strategies to electronic environments is timely and relevant for researching adolescents., Data Sources: Twenty three adolescents (aged 16-21) were interviewed by email. A letter of invitation was distributed. Potential participants emailed the researcher to convey interest in participating. If the inclusion criteria were met, email interviews were initiated. Participants controlled the interviews through their rate of response to interview questions., Review Methods: A grounded theory methodology was employed. Initial contact with participants reiterated confidentiality and the ability to withdraw from the study at any time. Interviews began with the collection of demographic information and a broad opening based on a semi-structured interview guide. All data were permissible, including text, photos, music, videos or outside media, for example YouTube. The participant was allowed to give direction to the interview after initial questions were posed. Email interviews continued until saturation was reached in the data., Discussion: Participants were enthusiastic about email interviewing. Attrition did not occur. Email interviewing gave participants more control over the research, decreased power differentials between the adolescent and researcher, allowed the study to be adapted to cultural, linguistic and developmental needs, and maintained confidentiality., Conclusion: As participants said that email communication was slow and they preferred instant messaging, replication in faster-paced media is recommended. Repetition in face-to-face settings is warranted to evaluate how technology may have influenced the findings. Implications for practice/research Adolescents' use of the internet and their preference for textbased communication makes a compelling support for modifying traditional face-to-face qualitative investigations to reflect these changing contextual conditions.

Chronic kidney disease is a major health problem due to the significant financial burden for the healthcare system and likewise for the patient who needs the treatment. The patient's whole life situation is turned upside down with chronic kidney disease when they are confronted with the forced change to start treatment with hemodialysis. Patients with chronic kidney disease experience a lack of adequate emotional support from nurses during the transition to hemodialysis. The purpose of this study was to explore nurses' experiences of giving support to patients during the transition to hospital-bound hemodialysis. The study had a qualitative descriptive design with a content analysis approach; eight nurses from four hospitals in the south of Sweden participated. The results showed that the nurses gave threshold support with an openness and awareness of the patient's individual needs during the transition, except that there seemed to be a lack of knowledge and ability to provide emotional support. Patient support during the transition could therefore be absent. Education, at local and national levels, is needed for the nurse to be able to give professional emotional support. Further research is also desired in order to provide nurses with the tools they need to give emotional support, which is of utmost importance.

Research-based descriptions of the contents of the habilitation nursing of children with developmental disabilities are lacking. The objective of this qualitative study was to describe the habilitation nursing of children with developmental disabilities in a Finnish children's neurological ward. In addition, the purpose was to outline the principles that directed the nursing functions (which consisted of various nursing interventions). The data collection included observation, a retrospective think-aloud method with video-taped nursing situations, the nursing records, and an open-ended questionnaire. The data were analysed with a qualitative content analysis of the manifest and latent content. The findings show that habilitation nursing in a children's neurological ward consists of assessing the child's skills, supporting the child's development, and collaborating with the child's immediate adults. When implementing those functions with nursing interventions, the nurses demonstrated four principles: client-originated and professional-originated principles, and individual-centred and community-centred principles. Becoming conscious of these principles and the theoretical frameworks behind them enables the development of a nursing science-based model for habilitation nursing.

Aim: To assess the feasibility of using qualitative methods to explore psychological comorbidities associated with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)., Background: IBS is a condition that often has a significant effect on quality of life. It has a high prevalence of co-existing psychological illness, which has been associated with more severe and persistent symptoms and an increased need for specialist referral. Only a small number of research studies have explored patients' perceptions and experiences of IBS, particularly when they are compounded by the presence of psychological comorbidity., Data Sources: Semi-structured interview methods were used to explore the patients' experiences and perceptions of IBS and co-existing psychological illness., Review Methods: All interview data were transcribed before conducting a thematic analysis., Discussion: The paper reports the methods used to conduct a small feasibility study and discusses and justifies these methods. Methodological issues and the implications these may have on the conduct of the study are presented and critically discussed., Conclusion: Important issues were identified during the design and conduct of the feasibility study relating to the quality of participant information, participant recruitment and the suitability of the proposed methods., Implications for Research/practice: Semi-structured interviews are suitable methods for exploring complex issues such as the psychological comorbidities associated with IBS. Further research should explore the patient perception and experience of concomitant psychological illness, which would help researchers develop effective interventions for patients with IBS.

Aim: To outline the traditional worldviews of healthcare research and discuss the benefits and challenges of using mixed methods approaches in contributing to the development of nursing and midwifery knowledge., Background: There has been much debate about the contribution of mixed methods research to nursing and midwifery knowledge in recent years., Data Sources: A sequential exploratory design is used as an exemplar of a mixed methods approach. The study discussed used a combination of focus-group interviews and a quantitative instrument to obtain a fuller understanding of women's experiences of childbirth., Review Methods: In the mixed methods study example, qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis and quantitative data using regression analysis., Discussion: Polarised debates about the veracity, philosophical integrity and motivation for conducting mixed methods research have largely abated. A mixed methods approach can contribute to a deeper, more contextual understanding of a variety of subjects and experiences; as a result, it furthers knowledge that can be used in clinical practice., Conclusion: The purpose of the research study should be the main instigator when choosing from an array of mixed methods research designs. Mixed methods research offers a variety of models that can augment investigative capabilities and provide richer data than can a discrete method alone., Implications for Practice/research: This paper offers an example of an exploratory, sequential approach to investigating women's childbirth experiences. A clear framework for the conduct and integration of the different phases of the mixed methods research process is provided. This approach can be used by practitioners and policy makers to improve practice.

Aim: To reflect on the added value that a mixed method design gave in a large national evaluation study of specialist and advanced practice (SCAPE), and to propose a reporting guide that could help make explicit the added value of mixed methods in other studies., Background: Recently, researchers have focused on how to carry out mixed methods research (MMR) rigorously. The value-added claims for MMR include the capacity to exploit the strengths and compensate for weakness inherent in single designs, generate comprehensive description of phenomena, produce more convincing results for funders or policy-makers and build methodological expertise., Data Sources: Data illustrating value added claims were drawn from the SCAPE study., Review Methods: Studies about the purpose of mixed methods were identified from a search of literature., Discussion: The authors explain why and how they undertook components of the study, and propose a guideline to facilitate such studies., Conclusion: If MMR is to become the third methodological paradigm, then articulation of what extra benefit MMR adds to a study is essential. The authors conclude that MMR has added value and found the guideline useful as a way of making value claims explicit., Implications for Practice/research: The clear articulation of the procedural aspects of mixed-methods research, and identification of a guideline to facilitate such research, will enable researchers to learn more effectively from each other.

Aim: To describe the challenges faced by those performing complex qualitative analysis during a narrative study and to offer solutions., Background: Qualitative research requires rigorous analysis. However, novice researchers often struggle to identify appropriately robust analytical procedures that will move them from their transcripts to their final findings. The lack of clear and detailed accounts in the literature that consider narrative analysis and how to address some of the common challenges researchers face add to this problem., Data Sources: A longitudinal narrative case study exploring the personal and familial changes reported by uninjured family members during the first year of another family member's traumatic brain injury. Review methods This is a methodological paper., Discussion: The challenges of analysis included: conceptualising analysis; demonstrating the relationship between the different analytical layers and the final research findings; interpreting the data in a way that reflected the priorities of a narrative approach; and managing large quantities of data. The solutions explored were: the mapping of analytic intentions; aligning analysis and interpretation with the conceptual framework; and the use of matrices to store and manage quotes, codes and reflections., Conclusion: Working with qualitative data can be daunting for novice researchers. Ensuring rigorous, transparent, and auditable data analysis procedures can further constrain the interpretive aspect of analysis. Implications for research/practice The solutions offered in this paper should help novice researchers to manage and work with their data, assisting them to develop the confidence to be more intuitive and creative in their research.

Aim: To explore the methodological and ethical issues of conducting qualitative telephone interviews about personal or professional trauma with critical care nurses., Background: The most common method for conducting interviews is face-to-face. However, there is evidence to support telephone interviewing on a variety of sensitive topics including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Qualitative telephone interviews can limit emotional distress because of the comfort experienced through virtual communication. Critical care nurses are at increased risk of developing PTSD due to the cumulative exposure to work-related stress in the intensive care unit. We explored the methodological and ethical issues of conducting qualitative telephone interviews, drawing on our experiences communicating with a group of critical care nurses., Data Sources: Qualitative research interviews with 27 critical care nurses. Fourteen of the nurses met the diagnostic criteria for PTSD; 13 did not and had scores consistent with high levels of resilience., Review Methods: This is a methodology paper on the authors' experiences of interviewing critical care nurses on sensitive topics via the telephone., Discussion: The authors found that establishing rapport and connections with the participants and the therapeutic use of non-verbal communication were essential, and fostered trust and compassion. The ethical issues of this mode of communication include protecting the privacy and confidentiality associated with the disclosure of sensitive information, and minimising the risk of psychological harm to the researcher and participants., Conclusion: Qualitative telephone interviews are a valuable method of collecting information on sensitive topics., Implications for Research/practice: This paper explores a method of interviewing in the workplace. It will help inform interventions to promote healthy adaptation following trauma exposure in the intensive care unit.

Aim: To consider the development and use of real stories rather than vignettes in interviews., Background: Effective interprofessional working critically informed by the perspectives of informal carers was considered by the research team to be under-researched. It was proposed initially to use fictional vignettes as triggers in interviews with informal carers. It could be argued that the vignette does not represent the voice of the individual or may only represent a particular experience. Stories acknowledge a person's expertise in his or her experiences. A decision was made early in the design process to use real stories instead of vignettes., Data Sources: A descriptive naturalistic design using a participatory approach. Two stories were developed by the researcher and two informal carers, and then used in interviews with other carers to explore their experiences and perceptions of interprofessional working., Review Methods: The paper provides a discussion of an alternative approach to data collection., Discussion: The stories promoted a sense of support for the participants, which they gained from listening to and sharing stories of caring. This approach offered a different experience for the carers from the standard interview format., Conclusion: The paper describes the use of real stories in interviews, which is not a commonly reported method. Carers were involved in both the development and the use of the stories in the interviews. Those interviewed valued the credibility gained by using these real stories, as opposed to constructed vignettes., Implications for Research/practice: Using stories in this way contributes to methodological development, which allows perceptions and experiences to be captured.

Aim: To explore the challenges of engaging men with penile cancer in qualitative interview research., Background: Qualitative interviewing offers an ideal tool for exploring men's experiences of illness, complementing and providing context to gendered health inequalities identified in epidemiological research on men. But conducting interviews with men can be challenging and embarking on a qualitative interview study with males can feel like a daunting task, given the limited amount of practical, gender-sensitive guidance for researchers. Reflecting on a researcher's experience of conducting qualitative research on men with penile cancer, this paper explores the potential challenges of interviewing this group, but also documents how engagement and data collection were achieved., Review Methods: This is a reflective paper, informed by the experiences of a male researcher (KW) with no nurse training, who conducted 28 interviews with men who had been treated for penile cancer. The researcher's experiences are reported in chronological order, from the methodological challenges of recruitment to those of conducting the interview., Implications for Practice/research: The paper offers a resource for the novice researcher, highlighting some advantages and disadvantages of conducting qualitative interview research as a nurse researcher, as well as recommendations on how to overcome challenges., Conclusion: Engaging men with penile cancer in qualitative interview raises practical, methodological, ethical and emotional challenges for the researcher. However, when these challenges are met, men will talk about their health. Methodological procedures must enable an open and ongoing dialogue with clinical gatekeepers and potential participants to promote engagement. Support from colleagues is essential for any interviewer, no matter how experienced the researcher is.

The purpose of this article is to explore the status quo of situation-specific theories through an integrated literature review on situation-specific theories that have been published since 1999. The literature was searched through multiple databases including PubMed, CINAHL, and PsycINFO and analyzed in terms of purpose of theorizing, types of theorizing, sources of theorizing, and linkages to research or practice. Four themes reflecting the current status of situation-specific theories were extracted: (a) explicitly claimed and not explicitly claimed situation-specific theories; (b) multiple philosophical bases; (c) unique theorizing process; and (d) providing clear directions for nursing interventions but rarely evaluated. Nurses need to continuously make their efforts to develop theoretical bases that could closely link theory, research, and practice in nursing and that could adequately serve new nursing needs and challenges.

Aim: Report of an innovative use of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) to enable an in-depth study of the experiences of disengagement from mental health services of black men with diagnoses of severe and enduring mental illness., Background: The aim of IPA is to explore the sense that participants make of their personal and social worlds, while recognising the contribution of the researcher in interpreting the participants' interpretations of their experiences., Review Methods: Seven black male research participants were recruited to the study. The components of the study that contribute to the body of literature on IPA research design include: an engagement stage in the research; a second clarifying interview; discussion of clarifying questions and emergent themes with two academic service-users; and a post-interview meeting to discuss the themes emerging from the research study., Discussion: The paper focuses on the contribution of the four specific design features of the study and how these enabled the researcher to engage with a population that is often deemed 'hard to reach'., Conclusion: The four distinctive methodological developments in the study emphasise the flexibility of IPA. These innovations assisted the researcher in developing a broader double hermeneutic that enabled reporting of the experiences of disengagement from mental health services of black men with diagnoses of severe and enduring mental illness., Implications for Research/practice: The distinctive design of this study further emphasises the flexibility of IPA, while simultaneously showing fidelity to the core principles underlying the research methodology.

Background: Heideggerian hermeneutic phenomenology has been used widely to understand the meaning of lived experiences in health research. For midwifery scholars this approach enables deep understanding of women's and midwives' lived experiences of specific phenomena. However, for beginning researchers this is not a methodology for the faint hearted. It requires a period of deep immersion to come to terms with at times impenetrable language and perplexing concepts., Objectives: This paper aims to assist midwives to untangle and examine some of the choices they face when they first come to terms with an understanding of this methodology and highlights the methodology's capacity to reveal midwifery authenticity and holistic practice., Discussion: The illumination of a selection of various concepts underpinning hermeneutic phenomenology will inform midwives considering this methodology as suitable framework for exploring contemporary midwifery phenomena., (Copyright © 2013 Australian College of Midwives. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Aim: To review strategies for successful recruitment in small-scale, qualitative research in primary care by exploring those used in a variety of settings and providing a reflective analysis of the strategies used in one such study., Background: Recruitment of participants in small-scale, qualitative research in primary care is problematic. Researchers need to be more aware of the issues involved, but there is little practical guidance available to help them devise efficient strategies for maximising recruitment., Data Sources: This paper draws on a study conducted in the Highlands of Scotland examining the emotional wellbeing of pregnant and non-pregnant women. This was a qualitative study using diaries and interviews over a period of nine months. Ten women were recruited over a period of more than two years., Review Methods: The author reviews the strategies for successful recruitment based on both a review of the available literature as well as the experience of one study., Discussion: Recruitment of subjects to a study is one of the major elements of a research proposal and requires significant effort, yet there is little to guide researchers through this difficult process. The challenge of recruitment is seldom debated and studies rarely report problems encountered or outline approaches that proved particularly successful. The importance of successful recruitment is discussed and the arguably typical recruitment difficulties encountered by researchers conducting a study in the Highlands of Scotland are outlined. The elements that comprised successful recruitment in this and other studies are appraised., Conclusion: Although focused specifically on recruitment in small-scale, qualitative studies in primary care, this paper raises broader issues about the recruitment of participants in all types of research. Recruitment has implications for the trustworthiness and dependability of the data and hence the findings of research. Despite this, there remains a lack of evidence about what enhances research recruitment, leaving researchers to rely on guesswork and anecdotes. In a climate of evidence-based practice, researchers should be encouraged to include a formal evaluation of recruitment strategies in their studies and to report their findings., Implications for Practice/research: As recruitment has implications for the trustworthiness and dependability of research, researchers need to consider a wide range of recruitment strategies and include a formal evaluation of their recruitment strategies when reporting on their research.

Aim: To outline the barriers to and benefits of using Q methodology in a classroom., Background: Q methodology has been established as a systematic way to measure subjectivity that is consistent with the naturalistic paradigm. While it is often confused with quantitative methods, it provides the qualitative researcher with powerful tools to investigate the diverse subjective experiences and perceptions of participants., Data Sources: Reflections in this paper stem from the experiences of the authors and are supported by literature., Discussion: Barriers to conducting a Q-sort activity in the classroom are context dependent and may include limitations of the environment, time constraints as well as issues with comprehension. Despite these barriers, using a classroom for the activity can also enhance student learning, increase participation in research, clarify instructions, enrich study feedback and promote accessibility of the study population., Conclusion: With an understanding of potential pitfalls of using this methodology in the classroom setting, nurse researchers can develop strategies to reduce these barriers and enhance the quality of future research., Implications for Practice/research: Q-methodology is an alternate way of measuring the subjective views of individuals in a variety of settings such as clinical practice, research and educational institutions. Q-sorts may be used for research and/or classroom activities because the activity can promote discussion related to the content of a class. If using an activity like this one, educators and researchers need to be mindful of potential barriers to sorting in order to minimise them and maximise the potential of the activity.

Aim: To explore two contrasting methods of phenomenographic data analysis., Background: Phenomenography is a still-uncommon but increasingly used methodology based on qualitative interviews that allows experiences to be categorised and put into a descriptive structure for use in developing educational interventions. There are two different approaches in the literature to analysing data: the Marton and Åkerlind methods., Data Sources: A doctoral research project investigating the role of information literacy in evidence-based practice in nursing., Review Methods: The phenomenographic study involves open-ended interviews in which participants are asked to describe their 'life-world' where the phenomenon is experienced, covering the contexts in which it is experienced and how it is experienced. The researcher attempts to develop statements from the interview transcripts that describe representative ways of experiencing the phenomenon in the form of 'categories of description'. A category of description represents a qualitatively different way of experiencing a phenomenon., Discussion: This article discusses the reasons for adopting phenomenography, phenomenography's epistemological assumptions, and the strengths and weaknesses of the two different data-analysis methods., Conclusion: Phenomenography's strength is its ability to develop logical structures that give a picture of the experience of a phenomenon while being able to read into the structure as much of the complexity of that experience as is consciously and practically possible., Implications for Practice/research: One method, described as the 'Åkerlind' method, emerged as the appropriate method for phenomenographic studies in nursing.

Good and bad examples of qualitative research. Not all the research papers are of good quality and contribute to the development of the knowledge. Good and less good examples of qualitative research are presented and commented on, exploring their contribution to the knowledge of a subject, and motivating why the research can be considered a good or less good example.

Introduction to qualitative research: the main approaches and designs. The main methods (phenomenology, ethnography, Grounded, narrative enquiry and case studies) and sampling technique of qualitative research are briefly outlined. A practical example is presented for each method.

Qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis are two commonly used approaches in data analysis of nursing research, but boundaries between the two have not been clearly specified. In other words, they are being used interchangeably and it seems difficult for the researcher to choose between them. In this respect, this paper describes and discusses the boundaries between qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis and presents implications to improve the consistency between the purpose of related studies and the method of data analyses. This is a discussion paper, comprising an analytical overview and discussion of the definitions, aims, philosophical background, data gathering, and analysis of content analysis and thematic analysis, and addressing their methodological subtleties. It is concluded that in spite of many similarities between the approaches, including cutting across data and searching for patterns and themes, their main difference lies in the opportunity for quantification of data. It means that measuring the frequency of different categories and themes is possible in content analysis with caution as a proxy for significance., (© 2013 Wiley Publishing Asia Pty Ltd.)

Aim: To provide an overview of interpretive phenomenology., Background: Phenomenology is a philosophy and a research approach. As a research approach, it is used extensively in nursing and 'interpretive' phenomenology is becoming increasingly popular., Data Sources: Online and manual searches of relevant books and electronic databases were undertaken., Review Methods: Literature review on papers on phenomenology, research and nursing (written in English) was undertaken., Discussion: A brief outline of the origins of the concept, and the influence of 'descriptive' phenomenology on the development of interpretive phenomenology is provided. Its aim, origins and philosophical basis, including the core concepts of dasein, fore-structure/pre-understanding, world view existential themes and the hermeneutic circle, are described and the influence of these concepts in phenomenological nursing research is illustrated., Conclusion: This paper will assist readers when deciding whether interpretive phenomenology is appropriate for their research projects., Implications for Research/practice: This paper adds to the discussion on interpretive phenomenology and helps inform readers of its use as a research methodology.

Unlabelled: AIM" To explore the notion of 'hubris' as an important consideration of reflexive thinking in qualitative research and how over-exuberant assumptions when interpreting data can impede conceptual development., Background: The author draws on experiences of hubris in his grounded theory PhD study., Data Sources: The study has undergone two phases of data collection and analysis. Phase one involved semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample of 20 registered nurse mentors. Preliminary findings were further developed by theoretical sampling of nurse mentors and practice educators in four major health boards in the UK, including 12 focus groups (n=43) and three further semi-structured interviews., Review Methods: Recognising hubris as a critical component of reflexive thinking was a feature of a grounded theory study exploring mentors' experiences of assessing students on the borderline of achievement in nursing practice., Discussion: Three examples of hubris contributing to hastily advanced interpretive analysis are discussed in terms of the researcher's personal and professional positioning towards participants, the development of categories and the ethical management of data. The complexity of hubris as an important aspect of . reflexive thinking is highlighted., Conclusion: Virtue ethics and the importance of keen interpretative husbandry as part of reflexive mindfulness are proposed, if not as solutions to the dilemmas of hubris, then at least as safeguarding against analytic pitfalls., Implications for Practice: The grounded theory study findings will make practice recommendations concerning mentors' support of students on the borderline of achievement of competence. The study will offer a theoretical perspective on mentorship conceptualised as a community of assessors throughout the duration of nursing programmes rather than purely an individual activity between student and mentor.

Aim: To describe the use of an innovative, multimethodological approach to exploring the day-to-day experiences of boys across a wide age range to better understand the effects of modern haemophilia treatment on their lives., Background: Children and young people with severe haemophilia can now be treated with prophylaxis and potentially have a lifestyle close to that of those without haemophilia. However, boys frequently describe living with haemophilia as burdensome., Data Sources: The study, based on a grounded theory approach, was conducted with boys aged four to 16 years old, using research methods that included photo-elicitation, 'draw and write' techniques, focus groups run by participant co-researchers and individual interviews., Review Methods: Grounded theory was used to enable rich data capture, through reshaping of research questions as theory developed., Discussion: The effectiveness of the methods used is discussed, along with consideration of the issues raised., Conclusion: These methods are effective for use with children. They can result in robust data and are also fun for child participants., Implications for Research/practice: Understanding life with chronic disease from a child's perspective can improve clinical care through a better understanding of health behaviour and lifestyle implications.