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Teacher education remains a largely unexplored area within the history of American education. This paper is an example of the types of state-specific stories that are needed as university administrators and policymakers make critical decisions about the content and purpose of teacher ed curriculum. These decisions, in turn, have a direct impact on the status of the teaching profession and, by extension, the quality of schooling that children receive. A guiding assumption of this paper is that the status of the teaching profession within K-12 schools is directly tied to the status of teachers, teaching, and teacher education within colleges and universities. The more that the nation's leading universities prioritize teaching and teacher education, the higher the public perception will be of the profession. The opposite, of course, is true as well. The purpose of this study is to pursue these assumptions while at the same time seeking a better understanding of the history of teacher education within the state of Texas. The study focuses on the immediate post-World War II period because of the intense change that took place during this time, and because the period gave rise to momentous decisions on the part of those who were leading institutions for teacher education.

The history of normal school education remains an area of study that has attracted relatively little attention from educational historians in recent years, although a growing body of literature is emerging. Nonetheless, early normal schools in New England and the Midwest have received greater attention than those established in the Southwest. Normal schools were first established and derived their name from France. These institutions were established specifically to educate and train teachers, and they quickly spread across Europe and later to the United States as public education blossomed. This research details the normal school narrative in the late 1800s and early 1900s when "normals" primarily served as the only means for women in the Southwest to achieve advanced education. The intersection between gender and teacher education at normal schools is explored, as gender became a defining characteristic of these institutions. In order to understand the development of teacher education more fully, a historical analysis of the confluence of gender and teacher education curriculum at specific normal schools in Texas was undertaken. (Contains 3 notes.)

As any glance at contemporary educational literature demonstrates, the concept of "constructivism" carries with it enormous appeal. Contemporary literature also reveals that many current educational reform initiatives encourage teaching practices that many people refer to as constructivist (Brooks and Brooks 1993; Roth 1993; Crawford and Witte 1999; Lord 1998). Despite, or even because of, the popularity of constructivism, this approach to teaching should be studied, analyzed, and discussed as it becomes more widespread in the language of educators. To date, few writers have attempted to connect contemporary constructivist concepts to teaching ideas from past centuries. This essay, therefore, has three purposes. First, it seeks, as best as possible, to develop a working definition of constructivism. Second, this article strives to connect these contemporary notions of constructivism to the work of three educators from past centuries. Third, and finally, this essay seeks to draw attention to and ask questions about why constructivist-like teaching practices often have such difficulty impacting the practical world of classroom action.

This essay raises the question, "Is there a future for the teaching profession?" Beginning with a brief story illustrating the difficulties teachers and teacher educators face, this essay addresses three topics educators must address if the profession is to thrive: teaching and research within universities, the recruitment of educators, and the renewal of true professionalism. The essay concludes with several immediate steps educators can take to reinvigorate the teaching profession for the 21st century.

For more than a century, high school students in the United States have been required to take at least one course in United States History. Almost every U.S. history textbook used for these courses covers the Texas Revolution in one way or another. Since the Texas Revolution is a significant part of American history, the authors chose to focus this study on the way this pivotal event has been presented to students over time. The success of the Texas Revolution initially established a separate country known as the Republic of Texas, but when later annexed to the United States triggered a war with Mexico resulting in the addition of massive territory being added to the United States that included the present day states of California, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming. This article examines five textbooks published over approximately a one hundred year span in order to determine how the authors of the books portrayed the Texas Revolution. All five books were published on the East coast, specifically New York and Massachusetts. All were designed as secondary school textbooks. The books were published between twenty and thirty years apart. Books published at twenty or thirty year intervals were chosen so that the authors of this article could analyze contextual influences while at the same time avoiding the problem of too much time between publications. After analyzing the way in which the Texas Revolution is portrayed in each of these texts, the authors attempt to identify the source of the changes that become apparent when comparing these five texts.

When one reads scholars from the past, many of the same problems found in schools in 2009 are quite similar to the problems educators were complaining about more than a century ago. One of the current controversial topics in schools today, for example, is student success, or lack thereof, in mathematics. Because of differences in mathematics achievement, debates about mathematics curriculum and teaching are ubiquitous. Although the motivations were slightly different, these same debates were going on at the beginning of the twentieth century among leading minds in education and psychology. E.L. Thorndike was one such debater. Although better known for his work in behavioral psychology, Thorndike applied many of his theories to the teaching of mathematics. Another powerful figure of the nineteenth century was Edward Brooks. Brooks, although less well-known in the field of education, also expressed his views on mathematics teaching and teacher education. The work of these two prominent educators remains as relevant today as it was in the late nineteenth century. In this paper, the authors compare the views of these scholars on the subjects of curriculum and teaching and then apply their work to the contemporary challenges that face mathematics curriculum and teaching. (Contains 2 notes.)

Following World War II, fear rooted in Communist paranoia gripped America. This distress seeped into all aspects of American culture, including education. The American people became increasingly worried that Communist influences would infiltrate the schools and pervert the minds of children. At the forefront of this quagmire was Dr. Earl James McGrath, the U.S. Commissioner of Education from 1949 until 1953. Although McGrath's role in the early 1950s hysteria over Communist influence has been explored in some respects by educational historian Stuart Foster of the University of London, the authors argue in this paper that McGrath played a more significant role than Foster describes in "Red Alert!" (Foster 2000). To argue this point, this study concentrates on McGrath by investigating his role in spreading anti-Communist sentiment through American education. In addition to the question of McGrath's political influence, this paper explores the impact that McGrath had on K-12 schools and hence American culture in general. The paper begins by providing background on McGrath's personal history and his rise to power. The authors highlight important moments in his life that provide insight into his motivations. They then describe how McGrath was relatively passive throughout the beginning of his tenure, even going so far as to criticize the idea of requiring teachers to sign loyalty oaths to prove their allegiance to American democracy (McGrath 1949a). However, as the academic community and other political powers began to question the risk that loyalty oaths posed to freedom of speech, McGrath became increasingly aggressive in his policies against Communism. By using primary source texts including McGrath's speeches and books, the authors reveal how McGrath became reckless in his assault on suspected Communists, to the extent that he severely hindered academic freedom, not only during his time as U.S. Commissioner of Education but for many years to come.

This article takes a closer look at Ralph Waldo Emerson's educational philosophy and its relationship to cooperative learning. Emerson believed that human beings should learn to think on their own, rather than solely acquire the craft of imitation or conformity by repeating the speech of their teachers. A liberating education, to Emerson, gives students the ability to challenge those in power when necessary. Cooperative learning and a continued use of creative teaching methods are keys to the kind of true student achievement that motivated Emerson's writing on education. Without this realization, the revelation of one's own ideas or leadership qualities will remain nothing more than a dream. Emerson believed that the core of a liberal education was for students to learn the process of thinking for themselves. Through peer interaction and well-planned cooperative learning activities, students can be developed into the kind of citizens who possess the self-reliant souls that Emerson envisioned.

Upon reviewing the story of higher education from the early eighteenth to the late twentieth century, the authors are able to evaluate the ideals of knowledge and how they have been transformed during this time period. Considering the implications education has on the training of students who become leaders in society, individuals should pay careful attention to the role higher education has played in the preparation of professionals in fields such as medicine and teaching. The ideals held up by universities offer insight into understanding how the working world interacts with professional preparation, as well as how they can once again embrace institutions that operate under the guidance of morality and the unity of truth. This paper thus follows the trajectory of higher education institutions from their initial cultivation of a broad understanding of truth, to the fragmentation of once unified beliefs, and finally to current efforts to recover the ideals of the classical college.

Is there a future for teacher ed "curriculum"? The author contends that he is not sure if there is a future for teacher ed curriculum, but if such a future is to exist, the answer will come only from history and moral philosophy. In this article, the author opines that individuals cannot make good decisions about the future of teacher ed curriculum until they have a realistic and thoughtful understanding of their past. He describes how a panel was formed to pursue scholarship on the history of teacher education, raise new possibilities for research, and draw attention to the need for serious, thoughtful scholarship in this area.

This essay challenges the conventional understanding of William Bagley and Arthur Bestor, which suggests that they held similar views in curriculum and teacher education. The author thinks this view is completely wrong and provides a radical new interpretation of Bagley and Bestor that uncovers a lost tradition within the field of education. Drawing on the important distinctions made between Bagley and Bestor in this essay is crucial to rebuilding the teaching profession today.

This article draws upon the history of teacher education to provide an introduction to four competing pedagogical philosophies. These four philosophies battled for control over curriculum for teachers during the period from 1890 to 1930. I begin by defining curriculum for teachers to include the liberal, the professional, and the experiential dimensions. Then, I identify four interest groups that sought to gain power over curriculum for teachers. I categorize these interest groups as the traditionalists, the integrationists, the technicians, and the romantics. Then, I explain how leading individuals from each interest group answered questions regarding human nature, the purpose of schooling, and curriculum for teachers. Finally, I argue that education schools should revitalize the integrationist tradition within pedagogical philosophy. This view has been forgotten for nearly 50 years, and the profession of teaching has suffered because of it.

Few professors of education in the 21st century know the name Isaac Leon Kandel. A Kappa Delta Pi Laureate and author of more than 20 books, Kandel may be known to scholars who specialize in comparative education or educational history; however, Kandel is known to very few beyond these two fields. This article is a testament to Kandel, his contributions to the field of education, and the significance of his educational philosophy.

"Social efficiency" is one of the most popular phrases in the fields of curriculum and educational history, but it often has been used without careful consideration of the various historical interpretations associated with it. This article challenges contemporary usage of "social efficiency" by explicating primary source documents from the early 20th century. It also explores what individuals such as William C. Bagley, John Dewey, and Irving King meant when they used this term within the various historical contexts in which they lived. Finally, this article sets forth three distinct definitions of "social efficiency."

The term civic virtue has been used to encompass the complementary goals of educating good people and good citizens to foster good government. Although many have put forth proposals for developing civic virtue in young people, they have not always adequately tapped the rich resources that can lead to a better understanding of the term. A more robust understanding is necessary if social studies educators are fully to embrace the challenge of fostering this human good through the social studies curriculum. In this article, the authors seek to clarify the meaning of civic virtue and convince readers that cultivating civic virtue is an appropriate goal for social studies education. They recommend a thorough understanding of Alasdair MacIntyre's "After Virtue" and Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" in helping teachers cultivate American students to participate actively in democratic governance, and content that nothing could be more important to the development of good character in students than the proper modeling of the moral and intellectual virtues by caring, well-educated, and ethically-minded teachers.

Often classified as efficiency-minded, Bobbitt changed his position in his final book, "Curriculum of Modern Education." This article examines four later ideas: the importance of general education, schools' inability to predetermine students' future lives and roles, schools' need to develop students' intellect, and Bobbitt's respect for great books. (Contains 26 references.) (MLH)