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Background: Cushing's syndrome (CS) is associated with skeletal muscle structural and functional impairment which may persist long-term despite surgical removal of the source of cortisol excess. Prevalence of sarcopenia and its impact on Health-Related-Quality of Life (HRQoL) in 'cured' CS is not known. There is a need to identify easy biomarkers to help the clinicians recognise patients at elevated risk of suffering sustained muscle function., Patients and Methods: We studied 36 women with CS in remission, and 36 controls matched for age, body mass index, menopausal status, and level of physical activity. We analysed the skeletal muscle mass using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, muscle fat fraction using two-point Dixon magnetic resonance imaging and muscle performance and strength using the following tests: hand grip strength, gait speed, timed up and go and 30-s chair stand. We assessed HRQoL with the following questionnaires: SarQoL, CushingQoL, SF-36. We calculated the sarcopenia index (SI; serum creatinine/serum cystatin C × 100)., Results: Prevalence of sarcopenia, according to the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP), was greater in CS as compared with controls (19% vs. 3%; p < .05). Patients with sarcopenia had a lower SarQoL score than those without sarcopenia (61 ± 17 vs. 75 ± 14; p < .05), and scored worse on the items pain, easy bruising and worries on physical appearance (p < .05 for all comparisons) of the CushingQoL questionnaire. Patients with sarcopenia had poorer physical functioning on SF-36 than those without sarcopenia (60 ± 23 vs. 85 ± 15; p < .01). SI was lower in patients with sarcopenia than those without (71 ± 3 vs. 77 ± 2; p = .032), and was associated with intramuscular fatty infiltration, worse performance on the 30-s chair stand test, slower gait speed, and worse muscle weakness-related HRQoL, as measured using the SarQoL questionnaire (p < .05). The optimised cut-off value for the SI ratio to diagnose sarcopenia was 72, which yielded a sensitivity of 73% and a specificity of 90%., Conclusions: Sarcopenia is common in patients with CS in long-term remission, and associated with impaired quality of life. The SI is a potential biomarker allowing clinicians to identify patients at high risk of muscle dysfunction., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Quantitative MRI is an increasingly used method to monitor disease progression in muscular disorders due to its ability to measure changes in muscle fat content (reported as fat fraction) over a short period. Being able to objectively measure such changes is crucial for the development of new treatments in clinical trials. However, the analysis of the images involved continues to be a daunting task because of the time needed. Whether a more specific analysis selecting individual muscles or a global one analyzing the whole thigh or compartments could be a suitable alternative has only been marginally studied. In our study we compare three methods of analysis of 2-point-dixon images in a cohort of 34 patients with late onset Pompe disease followed over a period of one year. We measured fat fraction on MRIs obtained at baseline and at year 1, and we calculated the increment of fat fraction. We correlated the results obtained with the results of muscle function tests to investigate whether the three methods of analysis were equivalent or not. We observed significant differences between the three methods in the estimation of the fat fraction at both baseline and year 1, but no difference was found in the increment in fat fraction between baseline and year 1. When we correlated the fat fraction obtained with each method and the muscle function tests, we found a significant correlation with most tests in all three methods, although in most comparisons the highest correlation coefficient was found with the analysis of individual muscles. We conclude that the fastest strategy of analysis assessing compartments or the whole thigh could be reliable for certain cohorts of patients where the variable to study is the fat increment. In other sorts of studies, an individual muscle approach seems the most reliable technique., Competing Interests: PM is employed by the company Philips Healthcare Iberia. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Alonso-Jiménez, Nuñez-Peralta, Montesinos, Alonso-Pérez, García, Montiel, Belmonte, Pedrosa, Segovia, Llauger and Díaz-Manera.)

Introduction: Duchenne (DMD) and Becker (BMD) muscular dystrophy are X-linked muscular disorders produced by mutations in the DMD gene which encodes the protein dystrophin. Both diseases are characterized by progressive involvement of skeletal, cardiac, and respiratory muscles. As new treatment strategies become available, reliable biomarkers and outcome measures that can monitor disease progression are needed for clinical trials. Methods: We collected clinical and functional data and blood samples from 19 DMD patients, 13 BMD patients, and 66 healthy controls (8 pediatric and 58 adult controls), and blood samples from 15 patients with dysferlinopathy (DYSF) and studied the serum concentration of 4 growth factors involved in the process of muscle fibrosis. We correlated the serum concentration of these growth factors with several muscle function tests, spirometry results and fat fraction identified by quantitative Dixon muscle MRI. Results: We found significant differences in the serum concentration of Platelet Derived Growth Factor-AA (PDGF-AA) between DMD patients and pediatric controls, in Connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF) between BMD patients and adult controls, and in and Transforming Growth Factor- β1 (TGF-β1) between BMD and DYSF patients. PDGF-AA showed a good correlation with several muscle function tests for both DMD and BMD patients and with thigh fat fraction in BMD patients. Moreover, PDGF-AA levels were increased in muscle biopsies of patients with DMD and BMD as was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry and Real-Time PCR studies. Conclusion: Our study suggests that PDGF-AA should be further investigated in a larger cohort of DMD and BMD patients because it might be a good biomarker candidate to monitor the progression of these diseases., Competing Interests: PM is employed by the company Philips Healthcare Iberia. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Alonso-Jiménez, Fernández-Simón, Natera-de Benito, Ortez, García, Montiel, Belmonte, Pedrosa, Segovia, Piñol-Jurado, Carrasco-Rozas, Suárez-Calvet, Jimenez-Mallebrera, Nascimento, Llauger, Nuñez-Peralta, Montesinos, Alonso-Pérez, Gallardo, Illa and Díaz-Manera.)

Introduction: Patients with acromegaly show musculoskeletal symptoms which may persist despite disease control. Increased i.m. fat fraction is a known cause of muscle dysfunction in several disorders., Objective: To assess the degree of fat fraction in thigh muscles of controlled acromegaly patients and its relationship with muscle dysfunction., Methods: In a cross-sectional study, we included 36 patients with controlled acromegaly and 36 matched controls. We assessed the percentage of fat fraction in each thigh muscle, using MRI 2-point Dixon sequence, and muscle performance and strength using the gait speed, timed up and go, 30-s chair stand, and hand grip strength tests. We evaluated joint symptoms using the Western Ontario McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC)., Results: Intramuscular fat fraction was greater in patients than controls (P < 0.05 for muscle compartments, rectus femoris (RF), vastus intermedius (VI), adductor magnus (AM) and semimembranosus). Patients had slower gait speed and poorer performance on the 30-s chair stand and timed up and go tests than controls (P < 0.05). The greater fat fraction in the combined anterior-posterior compartment and in each muscle was associated with worse performance on timed up and go (P < 0.05). The fat fraction in the anterior-posterior compartment predicted performance on timed up and go after adjusting for muscle area, IGF-I and WOMAC functional and pain scores (β = 0.737 P < 0.001)., Conclusions: Patients with controlled acromegaly have greater thigh i.m. fatty infiltration, which is associated with muscle dysfunction. Futures studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying this relationship.

Objectives: Magnetization transfer (MT) imaging exploits the interaction between bulk water protons and protons contained in macromolecules to induce signal changes through a special radiofrequency pulse. MT detects muscle damage in patients with neuromuscular conditions, such as limb-girdle muscular dystrophies or Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, which are characterized by progressive fiber loss and replacement by fatty tissue. In Pompe disease, in which there is, in addition, an accumulation of glycogen inside the muscle fibers, MT has not been tested yet. Our aim is to estimate MT ratio (MTR) in the skeletal muscle of these patients and correlate it with intramuscular fat fraction (FF) and results of muscle function tests. Methods: We obtained two-point axial Dixon and Dixon-MT sequences of the right thigh on a 1.5 Teslas MRI scanner in 60 individuals, including 29 late onset Pompe disease patients, 2 patients with McArdle disease, and 29 age and sex matched healthy controls. FF and MTR were estimated. Muscle function using several muscle function tests, including quantification of muscle strength, timed test quality of life scales, conventional spirometry obtaining forced vital capacity while sitting and in the supine position, were assessed in all patients. Results: MTR was significantly lower in Pompe patients compared with controls (45.5 ± 8.5 vs. 51.7 ± 2.3, Student T -test, p < 0.05). There was a negative correlation between the MTR and FF muscles studied (correlation coefficient: -0.65, Spearman test: p < 0.05). MTR correlated with most of the muscle function test results. We analyzed if there was any difference in MTR values between Pompe patients and healthy controls in those muscles that did not have an increase in fat, a measure that could be related to the presence of glycogen in skeletal muscles, but we did not identify significant differences except in the adductor magnus muscle (48.4 ± 3.6 in Pompe vs. 51 ± 1.3 in healthy controls, Student T -test = 0.023). Conclusions: MTR is a sensitive tool to identify muscle loss in patients with Pompe disease and shows a good correlation with muscle function tests. Therefore, the MT technique can be useful in monitoring muscle degeneration in Pompe disease in clinical trials or natural history studies., Competing Interests: PM was employed by company Philips Healthcare Iberia. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Nuñez-Peralta, Montesinos, Alonso-Jiménez, Alonso-Pérez, Reyes-Leiva, Sánchez-González, Llauger-Roselló, Segovia, Belmonte, Pedrosa, Martínez-Noguera, Matellini-Mosca, Walter and Díaz-Manera.)

Objectives: Pompe disease is a rare genetic disease produced by mutations in the GAA gene leading to progressive skeletal and respiratory muscle weakness. T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging is useful to identify fatty replacement in skeletal muscles of late-onset Pompe disease (LOPD) patients. Previous studies have shown that replacement by fat correlates with worse results of muscle function tests. Our aim was to investigate if fat replacement of muscles involved in the ventilation process correlated with results of the spirometry and predicted respiratory muscle impairment in LOPD patients over time. Materials and Methods: We studied a cohort of 36 LOPD patients followed up annually in our center for a period of 4 years. We quantified muscle fat replacement using Mercuri score of the thoracic paraspinal and abdominal muscles and the pillars of the diaphragm. We correlated the combined Mercuri scores of these areas with spirometry results and the need of respiratory support. Results: We found a statistically significant correlation (Spearman test, p < 0.05; coefficient of correlation > 0.6) between forced vital capacity seated and lying and fat fraction score of all muscle groups studied. The group of patients who needed respiratory support had higher fat fraction scores than patients not requiring ventilatory support. Higher fat replacement in these areas correlated with worse progression in spirometry values over time. Conclusions: Fat replacement of paraspinal, abdominal, and trunk muscles correlates with results of spirometry and is able to predict worsening in respiratory muscle function tests that could lead to an emerging ventilatory dysfunction. Therefore, the identification of fat replacement in these muscle groups should lead to a closer monitorization of patients. Radiologic evaluation of diaphragm pillars in T1-weighted imaging axial sequences could also be helpful to predict respiratory insufficiency., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Reyes-Leiva, Alonso-Pérez, Mayos, Nuñez-Peralta, Llauger, Belmonte, Pedrosa-Hernández, Segovia and Díaz-Manera.)

Purpose of Review: This review aims to discuss the recent results of studies published applying quantitative MRI sequences to large cohorts of patients with neuromuscular diseases., Recent Findings: Quantitative MRI sequences are now available to identify and quantify changes in muscle water and fat content. These two components have been associated with acute and chronic injuries, respectively. Studies show that the increase in muscle water is not only reversible if therapies are applied successfully but can also predict fat replacement in neurodegenerative diseases. Muscle fat fraction correlates with muscle function tests and increases gradually over time in parallel with the functional decline of patients with neuromuscular diseases. There are new spectrometry-based sequences to quantify other components, such as glycogen, electrolytes or the pH of the muscle fibre, extending the applicability of MRI to the study of several processes in neuromuscular diseases., Summary: The latest results obtained from the study of long cohorts of patients with various neuromuscular diseases open the door to the use of this technology in clinical trials, which would make it possible to obtain a new measure for assessing the effectiveness of new treatments. The challenge is currently the popularization of these studies and their application to the monitoring of patients in the daily clinic.

Background: Late-onset Pompe disease (LOPD) is a genetic disorder characterized by progressive degeneration of the skeletal muscles produced by a deficiency of the enzyme acid alpha-glucosidase. Enzymatic replacement therapy with recombinant human alpha-glucosidase seems to reduce the progression of the disease; although at the moment, it is not completely clear to what extent. Quantitative muscle magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) is a good biomarker for the follow-up of fat replacement in neuromuscular disorders. The aim of this study was to describe the changes observed in fat replacement in skeletal muscles using qMRI in a cohort of LOPD patients followed prospectively., Methods: A total of 36 LOPD patients were seen once every year for 4 years. qMRI, several muscle function tests, spirometry, activities of daily living scales, and quality-of-life scales were performed on each visit. Muscle MRI consisted of two-point Dixon studies of the trunk and thigh muscles. Computer analysis of the images provided the percentage of muscle degenerated and replaced by fat in every muscle (known as fat fraction). Longitudinal analysis of the measures was performed using linear mixed models applying the Greenhouse-Geisser test., Results: We detected a statistically significant and continuous increase in mean thigh fat fraction both in treated (+5.8% in 3 years) and in pre-symptomatic patients (+2.6% in 3years) (Greenhouse-Geisser p < 0.05). As an average, fat fraction increased by 1.9% per year in treated patients, compared with 0.8% in pre-symptomatic patients. Fat fraction significantly increased in every muscle of the thighs. We observed a significant correlation between changes observed in fat fraction in qMRI and changes observed in the results of the muscle function tests performed. Moreover, we identified that muscle performance and mean thigh fat fraction at baseline visit were independent parameters influencing fat fraction progression over 4 years (analysis of covariance, p < 0.05)., Conclusions: Our study identifies that skeletal muscle fat fraction continues to increase in patients with LOPD despite the treatment with enzymatic replacement therapy. These results suggest that the process of muscle degeneration is not stopped by the treatment and could impact muscle function over the years. Hereby, we show that fat fraction along with muscle function tests can be considered a good outcome measures for clinical trials in LOPD patients., (© 2020 The Authors. Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society on Sarcopenia, Cachexia and Wasting Disorders.)

Context: Muscle weakness is common in patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS) and may persist after the resolution of hypercortisolism. Intramuscular fatty infiltration has been associated with the deterioration of muscle performance in several conditions., Objectives: To quantify the degree of fatty infiltration in the thigh muscles of "cured" CS patients and evaluate the relationship between intramuscular fatty infiltration and physical performance., Design: This was a cross-sectional study., Setting: Tertiary referral center., Patients: Thirty-six women with CS in remission, and 36 controls matched for age, BMI, menopausal status, and level of physical activity., Main Outcome Measures: We analyzed the percentage fat fraction (FF) of the thigh muscles in the anterior, posterior, and combined anterior and posterior compartments using MRI and 2-point Dixon sequence. We assessed muscle function and strength using the following tests: gait speed (GS), timed up and go (TUG), 30-second chair stand, and hand grip strength., Results: Fat fraction in all the compartments analyzed was increased in patients as compared with controls. The performance on TUG, 30-second chair stand, and GS was more impaired in CS patients versus controls. In patients, greater FF was negatively associated with performance on functional tests. Fat fraction in the combined anterior and posterior compartments predicted performance on TUG (ß 0.626, P < 0.000) and GS (ß -0.461, P = 0.007), after adjusting for age, BMI, menopausal status, and muscle mass., Conclusions: Thigh muscle fatty infiltration is increased in "cured" CS patients and is associated with poorer muscle performance. Future studies are needed to establish therapeutic strategies to improve muscle weakness in these patients., (© Endocrine Society 2020. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objective: Genetic diagnosis of muscular dystrophies (MDs) has classically been guided by clinical presentation, muscle biopsy, and muscle MRI data. Muscle MRI suggests diagnosis based on the pattern of muscle fatty replacement. However, patterns overlap between different disorders and knowledge about disease-specific patterns is limited. Our aim was to develop a software-based tool that can recognize muscle MRI patterns and thus aid diagnosis of MDs., Methods: We collected 976 pelvic and lower limbs T1-weighted muscle MRIs from 10 different MDs. Fatty replacement was quantified using Mercuri score and files containing the numeric data were generated. Random forest supervised machine learning was applied to develop a model useful to identify the correct diagnosis. Two thousand different models were generated and the one with highest accuracy was selected. A new set of 20 MRIs was used to test the accuracy of the model, and the results were compared with diagnoses proposed by 4 specialists in the field., Results: A total of 976 lower limbs MRIs from 10 different MDs were used. The best model obtained had 95.7% accuracy, with 92.1% sensitivity and 99.4% specificity. When compared with experts on the field, the diagnostic accuracy of the model generated was significantly higher in a new set of 20 MRIs., Conclusion: Machine learning can help doctors in the diagnosis of muscle dystrophies by analyzing patterns of muscle fatty replacement in muscle MRI. This tool can be helpful in daily clinics and in the interpretation of the results of next-generation sequencing tests., Classification of Evidence: This study provides Class II evidence that a muscle MRI-based artificial intelligence tool accurately diagnoses muscular dystrophies., (© 2020 American Academy of Neurology.)

Objective: To analyze the microRNA profile in serum of patients with Adult Onset Pompe disease (AOPD)., Methods: We analyzed the expression of 185 microRNAs in serum of 15 AOPD patients and five controls using microRNA PCR Panels. The expression levels of microRNAs that were deregulated were further studied in 35 AOPD patients and 10 controls using Real-Time PCR. Additionally, the skeletal muscle expression of microRNAs which showed significant increase levels in serum samples was also studied. Correlations between microRNA serum levels and muscle function test, spirometry, and quantitative muscle MRI were performed (these data correspond to the study NCT01914536 at ClinicalTrials.gov)., Results: We identified 14 microRNAs that showed different expression levels in serum samples of AOPD patients compared to controls. We validated these results in a larger cohort of patients and we found increased levels of three microRNAs, the so called dystromirs: miR-1-3p, miR-133a-3p, and miR-206. These microRNAs are involved in muscle regeneration and the expression of these was increased in patients' muscle biopsies. Significant correlations between microRNA levels and muscle function test were found., Interpretation: Serum expression levels of dystromirs may represent additional biomarkers for the follow-up of AOPD patients., (© 2019 The Authors. Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc on behalf of American Neurological Association.)

Background and Objective: Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD) is a genetic disorder caused by an abnormal expansion of GCN triplets within the PABPN1 gene. Previous descriptions have focused on lower limb muscles in small cohorts of patients with OPMD, but larger imaging studies have not been performed. Previous imaging studies have been too small to be able to correlate imaging findings to genetic and clinical data., Methods: We present cross-sectional, T1-weighted muscle MRI and CT-scan data from 168 patients with genetically confirmed OPMD. We have analysed the pattern of muscle involvement in the disease using hierarchical analysis and presented it as heatmaps. Results of the scans were correlated with genetic and clinical data., Results: Fatty replacement was identified in 96.7% of all symptomatic patients. The tongue, the adductor magnus and the soleus were the most commonly affected muscles. Muscle pathology on MRI correlated positively with disease duration and functional impairment., Conclusions: We have described a pattern that can be considered characteristic of OPMD. An early combination of fat replacement in the tongue, adductor magnus and soleus can be helpful for differential diagnosis. The findings suggest the natural history of the disease from a radiological point of view. The information generated by this study is of high diagnostic value and important for clinical trial development., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Adult onset Pompe disease is a genetic disorder characterized by slowly progressive skeletal and respiratory muscle weakness. Symptomatic patients are treated with enzymatic replacement therapy with human recombinant alfa glucosidase. Motor functional tests and spirometry are commonly used to follow patients up. However, a serological biomarker that correlates with the progression of the disease could improve follow-up. We studied serum concentrations of TGFβ, PDGF-BB, PDGF-AA and CTGF growth factors in 37 adult onset Pompe patients and 45 controls. Moreover, all patients performed several muscle function tests, conventional spirometry, and quantitative muscle MRI using 3-point Dixon. We observed a statistically significant change in the serum concentration of each growth factor in patients compared to controls. However, only PDGF-BB levels were able to differentiate between asymptomatic and symptomatic patients, suggesting its potential role in the follow-up of asymptomatic patients. Moreover, our results point to a dysregulation of muscle regeneration as an additional pathomechanism of Pompe disease.