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Novel transmission routes can allow infectious diseases to spread, often with devastating consequences. Ectoparasitic varroa mites vector a diversity of RNA viruses and, having switched hosts from the eastern to western honey bees (Apis ceranatoApis mellifera). They provide an opportunity to explore how novel transmission routes shape disease epidemiology. As the principal driver of the spread of Deformed Wing Viruses (mainly DWV-A and DWV-B), varroa infestation has also driven global honey bee health declines. The more virulent DWV-B strain has been replacing the original DWV-A strain in many regions over the past two decades. Yet, how these viruses originated and spread remains poorly understood. Here we use a phylogeographic analysis based on whole genome data to reconstruct the origins and demography of DWV spread. We found that, rather than reemerging in western honey bees after varroa switched hosts, as suggested by previous work, DWV-A most likely originated in Asia and spread in the mid-20thcentury. It also showed a massive population size expansion following the varroa host switch. By contrast, DWV-B was most likely acquired more recently from a source outside Asia, and appears absent from eastern honey bees, the original varroa host. These results highlight the dynamic nature of viral adaptation, whereby a vector’s host switch can give rise to competing and increasingly virulent disease pandemics. The evolutionary novelty and rapid global spread of these host-virus interactions, together with observed spillover into other species, illustrate how increasing globalisation poses urgent threats to biodiversity and food security.

open access article Research out put of the COLOSS monitoring Project. COLOSS is a global network of honey bee researchers This article presents managed honey bee colony loss rates over winter 2019/20 resulting from using the standardised COLOSS questionnaire in 37 countries. Six countries were from outside Europe, including, for the first time in this series of articles, New Zealand. The 30,491 beekeepers outside New Zealand reported 4.5% of colonies with unsolvable queen problems, 11.1% of colonies dead after winter and 2.6% lost through natural disaster. This gave an overall colony winter loss rate of 18.1%, higher than in the previous year. The winter loss rates varied greatly between countries, from 7.4% to 36.5%. 3216 beekeepers from New Zealand managing 297,345 colonies reported 10.5% losses for their 2019 winter (six months earlier than for other, Northern Hemisphere, countries). We modelled the risk of loss as a dead/empty colony or from unresolvable queen problems, for all countries except New Zealand. Overall, larger beekeeping operations with more than 50 colonies experienced significantly lower losses (p

The varroa mite (Varroa destructor), a complex ectoparasite with a very distinctive biology (Rosenkranz et al., 2010) is considered a key pest affecting beekeeping and honey bee health worldwide (T...

Varroasis is a dangerous pathogen of the honey bee caused by the mite Varroa destructor, the aim of this work is to assess the effectiveness of two natural products (oxalic acid and thymol) in the fight against varroasis. The experiment covered 40 colonies in the central region of Algeria. Two doses of oxalic acid were used: 30 and 45 grams per liter of sugar syrup. For thymol (Thymovar), two treatments were carried out: ½ strip with one and two applications for each group of colonies. The 1/2 strip formulation in two applications at an interval of two weeks apart seems the most effective; the 45 gm solution of oxalic acid has a higher efficacy compared to that of 30 gm, that the effectiveness of oxalic acid is directly linked to the presence of brood at the time of the intervention. these two treatments are of control measure to be integrated by beekeepers as part of an alternative control strategy.

Beekeeping provides a livelihood for hundreds of thousands of beekeepers in the Mediterranean area. This activity relies on a number of different indigenous subspecies, adapted to the very diverse and harsh conditions of the region. Climate change is expected to increase the stress factors affecting bees, especially in this region, reducing both pollination efficiency and production potential. Unfortunately, our ability to address this problem is limited by the incomplete knowledge of the natural adaptation mechanisms developed by the different subspecies. In order to increase the knowledge base for future selection programs to improve bee populations for environmental changes, the MEDIBEES project is being developed. It includes 9 partners from 8 Mediterranean countries on all three shores of the Mediterranean, covering 10 local subspecies of A. mellifera, which represents a remarkable and poorly known proportion of the genetic diversity. The project aims to: a) unravel the differential genetic background of Mediterranean subspecies, b) understand their adaptation to local conditions, and c) characterize their resistance to climate change. To achieve the objectives, colonies belonging to the local subspecies will be studied phenotypically to determine their behavior under environmental conditions, covering survival, sensitivity to pests/pathogens, behavior, physiology and reproduction which will be completed by gene expression and transcriptomic assays. In addition, complete genomes of field and laboratory samples will be sequenced to find genes putatively involved in adaptation and to develop new genetic tools to characterize honey bee populations according to their resistance to environmental stress factors. This effort will encourage the use of local subspecies, to make them more attractive and avoid importing foreign breeds, and will lay the foundation for future selection programs. Besides, the valorization of honey by both promoting its use and developing quality labels, and the evaluation of beekeeping by-products as modifiers of soil fertility and biota are also approached to help the beekeepers improve the sustainability of their farms in an economical and environmental sound manner., peer-reviewed

We present the complete mitochondrial genome of honey bee subspecies, Apis mellifera sahariensis (Apidae) belonging to the African lineage. The assembled circular genome has a length of 16,569 bp which comprises 13 protein coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, and AT rich region.

This article presents managed honey bee colony loss rates over winter 2018/19 resulting from using the standardised COLOSS questionnaire in 35 countries (31 in Europe). In total, 28,629 beekeepers supplying valid loss data wintered 738,233 colonies, and reported 29,912 (4.1%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 4.0–4.1%) colonies with unsolvable queen problems, 79,146 (10.7%, 95% CI 10.5–10.9%) dead colonies after winter and 13,895 colonies (1.9%, 95% CI 1.8–2.0%) lost through natural disaster. This gave an overall colony winter loss rate of 16.7% (95% CI 16.4–16.9%), varying greatly between countries, from 5.8% to 32.0%. We modelled the risk of loss as a dead/empty colony or from unresolvable queen problems, and found that, overall, larger beekeeping operations with more than 150 colonies experienced significantly lower losses (p, peer-reviewed

RNA viruses are associated with honey bee (Apis mellifera) colony losses in many parts of the world. Their consequences may be exacerbated when the ectoparasite mite Varroa destructor is present in hives. While evidence of pathogenic, viral-induced disease is abundant in western honey bees (Apis mellifera mellifera) from many parts of the world, less information exists regarding the pathogen load of Apis mellifera syriaca and Apis mellifera intermissa, honey bees from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) that play substantial roles in regional beekeeping. Here, we used next-generation sequencing to evaluate the viral populations of these subspecies and their associated mites. We found that both A. m. syriaca and A. m. intermissa, as well as the Varroa mites infecting their colonies, bear a suite of RNA viruses including major pathogenic viruses like Deformed wing virus, Acute bee paralysis virus, Black queen cell virus and Sacbrood virus, and less common viruses (e.g., bee Macula-like virus and Apis mellifera filamentous virus). The two native honey bee MENA subspecies have acquired different but overlapping suites of pathogens, which also differ, but overlap, with the suites detected in the mites. The presence of plant viruses suggests that they were acquired from foraging for pollen and nectar. Phylogenetic analysis of the above common pathogenic RNA viruses showed unexpected genetic relationships with other known strains, indicative of import to MENA from outside of the region. Our findings indicate that it is important to carefully consider the impact of the movement of queens and mobile colonies, and the effects such movement have, on the transmission of disease.

With a view to identify the pathogens and to establish the role of these pathogens in regulation of the density of honey bee population occurring in the apiaries of the area concerned samples of honeybee were collected from the beekeepers in some parts of central Algeria It is revealed that Nosema sp., Varroa destrutor, Peanibacillus larvae are associated with the disease manifestation in honey bees. The presence of Nosema sp., Varroa destrutor, Peanibacillus larvae was analyzed using standard OIE methods. Spores of Paenibacillus larvae were detected in 56.6 % in winter 52.32 % in spring. 29.33 % in autumn and 11.25 % in summer. Nosema infestation was recorded in 47.91 % bee individuals during spring. Varroa infestation rate was maximum 12.57 % in summer and lowest 3.44 % in spring. Analysis of data indicates that Boumerdes and Tipaza, diseases induced mortality exceeds 10 % in honeybee. There exists a significant correlation between Nosema disease and mortalities in honeybees. Seasons play significant role, irrespective of pathogens, in disease manifestation.

American foulbrood disease (AFB) is considered one of the most virulent bacterial diseases of honeybee (Apis mellifera); it has a vital negative impact on the beekeeping industry worldwide. This disease is caused by a spore forming bacterium Peanibacillus larvae that affects honeybee larvae. This work includes the screening of several alternative antibiotics efficacy to AFB disease. The sensitivity of Peanibacillus larvae to seven antibiotics was investigated using disk diffusion methods (Kirby Bauer disk diffusion). The tested compounds are approved by the US - Food and Drug Administration for agricultures uses. The most active antibiotics were Novobiocin and Florfenicol followed by Oxytetracycline and Tylosin. Erythromycin and Tilmicosin had intermediate activity; Lincomycin was recorded as the lowest active antibiotic against P.larvae. The result showed that Oxytetracycline resistance is still not a problem in Jordan, unlike in the USA and some other regions. To avoid any further problems in the spread of antibiotics-resistance, it is recommended that beekeepers have to establish methods for early detection of AFB, the application of antibiotics in inadequate doses with technical supervision and using of different alternative antibiotics such as Tylosin. Further studies are needed to determine the fate of Oxytetracycline and Tylosin residues in honey under field conditions at the recommended doses for field trial, whoever we do not recommend the prophylactic use of antibiotics whereas we recommend the treatment only in diseased colonies with high honey bee population. يعتبر عفن الحضنة الأمريكي واحد من أهم الممرضات البكتيرية التي تصيب نحل العسل مسببة خسائر كبرى لقطاع تربية النحل على الصعيد العالمي. وتعتبر سبورات بكتيريا (Peanibacillus larvae) السبب الرئيس وراء إصابة يرقات النحل بهذا المرض. في هذه الدراسة تم مسح تأثير سبعة المضادات الحيوية بإستخدام طريقة قرص الإنتشار (Kirby Bauer disk diffusion). وتعتبر المضادات المستخدمة هي تلك المعتمدة من خلال مؤسسة الغذاء والدواء الأمريكية ومعتمدة للاستعمال في القطاع الزراعي. وقد تبين أن مضادات (Novobiocin) و(Florfenicol) متبوعة بـ (Oxytetracycline) ثم (Tylosin). في حين كان كل من (Erythromycin) و(Tilmicosin) محدودة الفاعلية، وكان المضاد الحيوي (Lincomycin) الأقل فاعلية. وبذلك تبين أن (Oxytetracycline) لا يزال فاعل ولم تتشكل لدى البكتيريا مناعة ضدة بعكس الحالة الحاصلة في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية وبعض الأقاليم الأخرى.

In this short note we present comparable loss rates of honey bee colonies during winter 2016/2017 from 27 European countries plus Algeria, Israel and Mexico, obtained with the COLOSS questionnaire. The 14, 813 beekeepers providing valid loss data collectively wintered 425, 762 colonies, and reported 21, 887 (5.1%, 95% confidence interval 5.0–5.3%) colonies with unsolvable queen problems and 60, 227 (14.1%, 95% CI 13.8–14.4%) dead colonies after winter. Additionally we asked for colonies lost due to natural disaster, which made up another 6, 903 colonies (1.6%, 95% CI 1.5–1.7%). This results in an overall loss rate of 20.9% (95% CI 20.6–21.3%) of honey bee colonies during winter 2016/2017, with marked differences among countries. The overall analysis showed that small operations suffered higher losses than larger ones (p < 0.001). Overall migratory beekeeping had no significant effect on the risk of winter loss, though there was an effect in several countries. A table is presented giving detailed results from 30 countries. A map is also included, showing relative risk of colony winter loss at regional level.

Varroa mite has become a major concern of beekeepers in Algeria since the discovery of the first cases of infestation in the year 1982. Amitraz is the predominant compound used in Algeria to control V. destructor, its constant application has caused the appearance of resistant mite populations to this product in several parts of the world. This study was conducted to detect the possible existence of populations of resistant mites to Amitraz in Algeria. To determine the mites mortality percentage to the Amitraz, they were exposed to a trips of 2.5 x 1.0 cm. Varroa mortality in apiaries treated with Amitraz was 39.23%, lower than the 87.40% mortality obtained in apiaries that only received an alternative treatment. A significant difference (P>0.05) was found between two mortality of Varroa. Our results indicate a possible occurrence of Varroa resistance to Amitraz. The introduction of integrated programs for resistance management is required.

WOS: 000390325700003 In this short note we present comparable loss rates of honey bee colonies during winter 2015/16 from 29 countries, obtained with the COLOSS questionnaire. Altogether, we received valid answers from 19,952 beekeepers. These beekeepers collectively wintered 421,238 colonies, and reported 18,587 colonies with unsolvable queen problems and 32,048 dead colonies after winter. This gives an overall loss rate of 12.0% (95% confidence interval 11.8-12.2%) during winter 2015/16, with marked differences among countries. Beekeepers in the present study assessed 7.6% (95% CI 7.4-7.8%) of their colonies as dead or empty, and 4.4% (95% CI 4.3-4.5%) as having unsolvable queen problems after winter. The overall analysis showed that small operations suffered higher losses than larger ones. A table with detailed results and a map showing response and relative risks at regional level are presented. COST ActionEuropean Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) [FA0803]; Ricola Foundation - Nature Culture; Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management [100972] The colony loss monitoring group which carried out this study is a core project of the COLOSS Association. COLOSS supports regular workshops facilitating research discussions and collaboration between group members, and aims to explain and prevent massive honey bee colony losses. It was funded through the COST Action FA0803 and is now supported by the Ricola Foundation - Nature & Culture. The authors thank very much the many beekeepers who completed the COLOSS questionnaire providing the data for this work. The authors are also grateful to various national funding sources for their support of some of the monitoring surveys. Open Access was provided by the project "Zukunft Biene" (grant number: 100972) funded by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management.

International audience; AbstractUnusually high losses of honey bee colonies are reported in many regions of the world, but little data is available concerning the status of honey bee stocks in Africa. However, the situation on this continent, where beekeeping is weakly developed and where the wild population of the pollinator remains large, can give us an insight on the causes of increased mortalities elsewhere. In this study, we evaluate the health status of Apis mellifera intermissa and A. m. sahariensis populations inhabiting the north and the south of Algeria, respectively. We report few colony losses associated with an atypical pattern of prevalence for common honey bee parasites and pathogens. The presence or absence of these risk factors is discussed in relation to the occurrence of local and global colony losses to contribute to our understanding of how honey bee pathogens and parasite impact this pollinator’s health.

Honeybees, in addition to their production of honey, pollinate the flowers of fruit trees and other crops. Any threat to them, whether from pesticides, herbicides or diseases, therefore pose serious consequences not only for beekeeping, but also for agriculture in general. For several years, many beekeepers in Algeria have reported deaths in their apiaries. At present, we lack hard data on the causes of such mortality. In order to provide some answers to this problem, we conducted a field study with beekeepers in mid-northern Algeria. This study is complemented by information from the beekeeping cooperative, the technical institute of livestock and veterinary services department at the Ministry of Agriculture, and the regional laboratories of veterinary medicine. Analysis of the results shows bee diseases mainly represented by the Varroa and bee poisoning by insecticides, as well as ecosystem degradation (loss of honey flora) and climate change. All these factors threaten the local bee and have a negative influence on the production of honey.

We present the complete mitochondrial genome of honey bee subspecies, Apis mellifera sahariensis (Apidae) belonging to the African lineage. The assembled circular genome has a length of 16,569 bp which comprises 13 protein coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, and AT rich region.

This study was aimed to investigate the prevalence of acariosis in honeybee colonies of Apis mellifera intermissa in Algeria. To this end, samples of bee colonies of the Apis mellifera intermissa race were taken from the brood frames for assessment of acariosis induced by Acarapis woodi in five provinces in Algeria viz., Tizi Ouzou, Blida, Boumerdes, Algiers, and Bouira. A sample of 100 to 150 bees spread over three to five colonies for each apiary was observed. Presence of this parasite was examined using laboratory and microscopic methods that entailed dissecting the thoraxes of the bees to expose their tracheas. Each trachea was examined under a microscope. In the case of the infected bees, the mites appear as small oval bodies attached to the transparent walls of the tracheas. According to the examination and analysis results, two cases of acariosis were observed in two colonies in the same apiary in the province of Boumerdes. In Bouira province, only one colony infested by the mite was found. Meantime, no single case of acariosis was detected in the provinces of Blida, Algiers, and Tizi Ouzou. These results indicate low prevalence of this disease in Algeria. For the infected apiaries, there is so far no 100% effective treatment for acariosis. Once this disease is present in the apiary, the beekeeper must control its development at a level that will not affect the health of the colony.

Flies are well known to be endoparasitoids of bees, such Conopidae to bumble bees and leaf-cutter bees, Antrax antrax to several Osmia and other Megachilide species and Senotainia tricuspis (Meigen...

Honey Bees, in addition to their production of honey, pollinate fruit trees and other crops to flowers. Any threat to bees, whether from herbicides, pesticides, diseases or parasites is fraught with consequences not only for the bee, but also for agriculture in general. Numerous reports and studies have reported recent deaths and massive loss of bee colonies (Colony Collapse Discorder). The health of bees is one of the factors that causes this phenomena. The purpose of this article is to review a recent literature on major diseases of bees in different stages of their development. The study presents a synthesis on the main diseases: varroasis and acariosis, American and European foulbrood and viruses. All these pathologies have a negative influence on the colonies, causing symptoms and a decrease in production and mortality

Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) is considered as the most prevalent virus that dangerous the honeybee health worldwide today. In this study we aimed to evaluate the impact of the virus on honeybees (Apis mellifera intermissa) mortality in Algeria and we conducted the study on samples collected from the central area in the country. We used PCR for the diagnoses of the (DWV) in the diagnosis. The results had shown a high infestation in the sampled colonies and it represented 42% of the total sample. In this study, we found a clear role of both Varroa destructor mite and DWV on hive mortality in the experimented apiary. Further studies need to be conducted in order to give soled recommendations to the beekeepers, decision makers and stockholders of the Algerian beekeeping sector.

Apis mellifera intermissa is the native honeybee subspecies of Algeria. A. m. intermissa occurs in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, between the Atlas and the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. This bee is very important due to its high ability to adapt to great variations in climatic conditions and due to its preferable cleaning behavior. Here we report the draft genome sequence of this honey bee, its Whole Genome Shotgun project has been deposited at DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank under the accession JSUV00000000. The 240-Mb genome is being annotated and analyzed. Comparison with the genome of other Apis mellifera sub-species promises to yield insights into the evolution of adaptations to high temperature and resistance to Varroa parasite infestation.

Background: The Varroa destructor varroasis is a very serious parasite of honeybee Apis mellifera. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Varroa treatment using organic acid (oxalic acid) in Algeria identifying its side effects on bee colonies. Methods: Treatment was conducted in one apiary consisting 30 colonies kept in Langstroth hives kind. Oxalic acid dripped directly on bees 5ml of this solution of oxalic acid per lane occupied by a syringe. Three doses were tested: 4.2, 3.2 and 2.1% oxalic acid is 100, 75 and 50 g of oxalic acid dehydrate in one litter of sugar syrup (1water to1 surge) concentration. Results: The percentage of average efficiency obtained for the first dose was 81%, 72.19% for the second dose, and 65% for third one, while the dose of 100 g oxalic acid causes a weakening of honey bee colonies. Conclusion: The experiments revealed that clear variation in the treatment efficiency among colonies that this might be related to brood presence therefore in order to assure the treatment efficiency oxalic acid should be part of a bigger strategy of Varroa treatment.

Varroa disease is a parasitic disease of adult bees and brood, due to a blood-sucking external parasitic mite, Varroa destructor. This is one of the most dangerous diseases in Algeria. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of two treatments approved based thymol (Thymovar® and Apiguard®) in the fight against varroa in Algerian conditions and to determine the side effects of these treatments on bee colonies local Apis mellifera intermissa. The test was performed on 80 colonies with two different formulations for each treatment. As the results show in our test, a wide variation in the effectiveness between colonies is recorded for both treatments. The average efficiency for the group of colonies ½ Thymovar strap in two applications stood at 84.43%. This efficiency is lower for the group ½ straps in one application (77.23%). For Apiguard, the average efficiency is 81% for formulation 2 x 25g spaced two weeks, against a 79% rate for the formulation of 2X25 spaced one week. During our tests, with a few dead bees and nymphs found on nappies, we never recorded unusually high bee mortality. Further tests are needed to determine the optimal dose and the best time for treatment.