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The aim of this study was to discern an abscopal effect by modifying the delivery of radiation for metastatic malignant melanoma. The effect would be directly evident with visible/radiographic regression of the disease and indirectly shown with an overall extension in survival and potential cure. Patients with locally advanced, metastatic palpable, or radiographic visible metastatic malignant melanoma were treated with twice-daily radiation therapy using a dose range of 100-135 centigray (cGy) per fraction. A 100% complete response/continued regression with no recurrence was achieved within the region of delivery for every patient so treated. Of those alive at three years, few demonstrate a progression of the disease. These results were achieved without the use of immunotherapy, created few side effects, and were accomplished at a fraction of the alternative's cost. Evidence of an immune-mediated response (abscopal effect) was commonly seen. Treatment was administered within acceptable dose ranges, historically used twice daily for other malignancies known to be sensitive to the effects of radiation.

How are multiple variables integrated into a unitary response? This fundamental problem— integration of multiple variables—faces every field of psychology. Solid support for three exact mathematical integration laws— averaging, adding, multiplying—has been given by extensive empirical work by investigators in many countries. These three integration laws operate in almost every area of human psychology: person science, social attitudes, child development, learning/memory, language, psychophysics, and judgment—decision. These laws have nomothetic generality across persons and cultures together with idiographic capability for true measurement of personal, individual value. These integration laws are thus a foundation, both conceptual and empirical, for unifying psychological science.

Psychology is unique among the sciences in its joint concern with dual worlds: (a) internal world of feeling and thought, and (b) external world of stimulus and response. The first major movement in psychology, the introspectionist movement of the late 1800s, took the inviting direct attack of studying the internal world with conscious report. Introspective methods, however, led to disarray. They were replaced by an intolerant behaviorism that allowed only observables of the external world. Many important results were thus obtained as with animal conditioning and rote learning.

This is the first report of the life history and ontogenic larval development for any of the 11 North American species of Malenka. Concurrent monthly collections of larvae, and adults from emergence traps, were made over 15 years from an intermittent Oregon stream. Data from 2002–2007 collections were used for analysis; 97 males and 163 females were taken from emergence traps, and the head capsule widths of 192 larvae were measured. Counts of antennal and cercal segments, branching and growth of anterior thoracic (AT) gills, wingpad development, setation changes, and other morphological developments were recorded for an array of different sized larvae. Voltinism was variable, and the life history was complex with spread emergence and larva sizes. Progressive development of all studied characters occurred from the smallest field sampled larvae (0.36 mm hcw) to pre-emergent size. Antennal and cercal segments and gill branches nearly doubled in number, gill branch length doubled and typically the anterior-mo...

This is only the second report of the life history, and first on ontogenic nymphal development, for any of the 22 western species of North American Sweltsa. Concurrent monthly collections of nymphs, with bi-weekly collections of adults from emergence traps, from an intermittent Oregon stream over 10 years yielded an interesting assemblage of stoneflies, including Sweltsa adamantea with no congeners. Adults were taken from emergence traps from 2001 to 2007, and the head-capsule widths of 1,159 nymphs from 1999 to 2007 collections were individually measured. Counts of antennal and cereal segments, windpad presence and backward projecting length, presence of dark, thoracic sternocoxal hairs ( a diagnostic character in late instar Sweltsa), diameter of compound eyes, general presence and length of body hairs, and sexual dimorphism were determined for 68 nymphs representing an array of 0.27 to 1.86mm head capsule widths from 2004 to 2007 collections. Eggs were studied and photographed with SEM. The li...

The nymphs of three nemourid stonefly species, Malenka bifurcata (Claassen), Ostrocerca dimicki (Frison) and Soyedina producta (Claassen), are described and illustrated from field correlated and reared specimens collected from Oregon summer-dry headwater streams from 1992-2007. Their characters affirm the nymphal diagnostic generic characters proposed by Stewart & Stark (2002). Variation in specific characters from the few described congeners is discussed; these traits may be useful in eventual construction of species-level keys.

Two theories of assessing function knowledge were compared for intuitive physics. The choice assessment theory, derived from Piaget, presents subjects with two physical situations, each specified by the values of two physical variables; subjects choose the situation which will yield the greater value of a dependent variable. Functional measurement presents subjects with a single physical situation; subjects make a quantitative estimate of the dependent variable. Forty subjects made both choice and functional measurement responses for two situations of intuitive physics. The choice theory showed substantial frequencies of stepwise rules, implying that subjects failed to integrate the two given physical variables. Functional measurement, in contrast, showed that most subjects integrated the two variables, following exact addition or multiplication rules. It is concluded that functional measurement gives a more correct assessment of function knowledge and should be useful in science instruction. J Res Sci Teach 34: 359–376, 1997.

Two studies examined differences in excuse-maktg and blaming by subjects with internal or external locus of control. In Study I, 39 internals and 30 externals judged acceptability of various excuses in three situations and also assigned blame for cheating and lying in other situations. Externals were uniformly more prone to use excuses than internals, both for other actors and for themselves. Also, externals tended to assign less blame for cheating and lying. In Study II, 24 internals and 32 externals divided blame among themselves, another person, and ‘no one to blame’ in 10 joint-responsible situations. Externals assigned more blame to the other person and less to themselves, but approximately the same blame to ‘no one’ Externals also had higher tendencies to blame others and were more sensitive to being blamed. These results point to a ‘missing dimension’ of interpersonal relations in studies of excuse-making and blame.

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on the Megaloptera, which include the alderflies, dobsonflies, fishflies, and hellgrammites and are a small order of neuropterous insects with 328 described species. They are often considered to be the most primitive group of insects with complete metamorphosis. In the fossil record, Megaloptera first occur about 250 million years ago in the late Permian. The Megaloptera are most closely related to the Raphidioptera (snakeflies) and Neuroptera (lacewings and antlions). Among the major orders, they are most closely related to the Coleoptera (beetles). Larvae of all Megaloptera are aquatic predators. Their association with cool, well-oxygenated waters probably accounts for their greater species diversity in temperate regions than in the tropics. Although they are found throughout the world, the distributions are discontinuous, which is characteristic of a relict fauna. Megaloptera can be distinguished from other orders of insects by combination of characters: holometaboly, terrestrial adults and eggs, predaceous aquatic larvae, and exarate terrestrial pupae. The order of Megaloptera contains two families, Sialidae and Corydalidae. Sialids, or alderflies, are slow, awkwardly flying insects that range from 10 to 15 mm in length. Their bodies are black, brown, or yellowish orange. The wings are held tent-like over the abdomen so that they bear some resemblance to caddisflies (Trichoptera). The Corydalidae are much larger, 40 – 75 mm in length. Many species have pale, smoky wings mottled with brown, whereas others are nearly black, with white markings. This family is divided into two distinctive subfamilies: the Corydalinae or dobsonflies (larvae are hellgrammites), and the Chauliodinae or fishflies.

Although weight parameters are widely used in multiattribute analysis, there is little definite evidence about the validity of various methods for estimating weights. The present study of job satisfaction employed two common methods of self-estimated importance weights, namely, rating and allocation, as well as the trade-off method. Functional measurement theory was applied to derive true weights from the overall judgments of job satisfaction; these were used as a validity criterion for the self-estimated weights. The rating method produced valid weights, whereas the allocation method did not. Two types of inconsistencies were found in the trade-offs. An attractive method of self-estimated part-worths showed mixed promise. Overall, these results show the importance of empirical studies to develop valid methods of assessing weight and illustrate the usefulness of functional measurement for this purpose.

Single-subject design and analysis are an experimental ideal because perception, thought, and action all have their locus within the individual organism. Single-subject design thus avoids confoundings with individual differences that trouble many group experiments. Furthermore, single-subject design yields reliable data. But many single-subject experiments face the serious problem that responses may not be independent. There may be position effects, carryover effects from one trial to another, or successive responses may be correlated. Lack of independence means that each new response carries only partial information. To obtain independence, two main methods have been used. One is with treatment randomization, in which treatment conditions are randomly assigned to trials. The other is by allowing ample time between trials or by interpolating a baseline treatment to bring the subject to a common state before the next trial. With independent responses, standard statistical techniques become applicable, especially valid confidence intervals. To illustrate the broad potential of single-subject design and analysis and to emphasize the fundamental importance of extrastatistical research judgment, this chapter includes 10 illustrative experiments from perception, operant psychology, judgment-decision, developmental, and person cognition. Keywords: behavior modification; extrastatistical generalization; functional measurement theory; matching law; serial correlation; single-subject design; visual inspection

Phenomenal causality was studied by using Michotte's launch event, in which successive motion of two objects evokes an immediate perception that the first motion causes the second. Information integration theory was used to address the complementary issues of invariant perceptual structure and individual differences in phenomenal causality. Three informational cues were varied conjointly: temporal and spatial contiguity of the two motions, and the ratio of their speeds. The dependent measure was a judgment of degree of causality or naturalness. The results showed that individual differences were related to these instruction conditions; the subjects showed five distinctive response patterns. Two were the modal patterns elicited by the instructions, and the others fell in between. The averaging model gave a good account of the data, with meaningful parameter estimates. Individual differences were localized in cue evaluation, whereas their integration into a unified judgment followed an invariant averaging rule. The results allow some reconciliation between Michotte and his critics.

Publisher Summary This chapter describes integration psychophysics and cognition. Integration psychophysics is concerned primarily with relations among sensations or perceptions. Its conceptual base is primarily cognitive within the mental realm. Classical psychophysics has a different conceptual base in relations between the physical stimulus and sensation. This difference in conceptual base leads to fundamental differences at every level of investigation. These differences derive mainly from the two kinds of laws that epitomize these two approaches to psychophysics: psychophysical law and psychocognitive law. In addition, the basic difference between classical psychophysics and integration psychophysics concerns where order and law are sought: psychophysical law in one case and psychocognitive law in the other. Classical psychophysics seeks order at the psycho-physical interface—that is, in relations between physical stimulus energy and psychological sensation. Integration psychophysics, in contrast, is epitomized by search for psychocognitive laws. Of foremost interest are laws that govern the integration of separate sensations into a unitary perception. Such laws typically lie at a stage beyond sensory processing within the mental realm.

A functional theory of memory has already been developed as part of a general functional theory of cognition. The traditional conception of memory as “reproductive” touches on only a minor function. The primary function of memory is in constructing values for goal-directedness of everyday thought and action. This functional approach to memory rests on a solid empirical foundation.

The function of memory is to allow past experience to subserve present goal-oriented thought and action. The defining characteristic of goal-oriented approach/avoidance is value. Value lies beyond the reproductive conception of memory that is basic to both metaphors discussed in Koriat & Goldsmith's target article. Functional memory requires a quite different metaphor, for which a grounded theory is available.

Cognitive algebra strongly disproved the representativeness heuristic almost before it was published; and therewith it also disproved the base rate fallacy. Cognitive algebra provides a theoretical foundation for judgment-decision theory through its joint solution to the two fundamental problems – true measurement of subjective values, and cognitive rules for integration of multiple determinants.

Summary This experiment compared a weighted-average model from information integration theory with McGuire's inoculation theory as explanations of the “paper tiger” effect. Ss were 24 male and 24 female American college students. Procedure and design were similar to that used by McGuire, and his messages were used verbatim. Each S indicated his attitude on each of four health issues and also made direct estimates of the weight and scale value of each piece of information upon his attitude. An apparent paper tiger effect was observed for some issues, but the opposite effect was observed for other issues. The predictions of the averaging model were quite good in six of eight cases. The two discrepancies seemed to reflect an underestimation of the importance of attacking message. Overall, the results were interpreted as supportive of the informational interpretation. No need was found for the motivational concepts of belief threat and refutational practice used in inoculation theory.

A semantic constraint is a relationship between two parts of a proposition such that the meaning of one part conditions what the other part is likely to be. This experiment studied propositions in which agent-verb and verb-recipient constraints were varied factorially, each through several levels, by manipulating the compatibility of adjectival descriptions of the agent, and of the recipient, to the verb. It was hypothesized that these two constraints should be integrated by a multiplying rule to determine the overall perceived likelihood of the proposition. Considerable support was found for this multiplying model using functional measurement methodology. This methodology provides a unique tool for psycholinguistics since it can quantify aspects of meaning of the individual linguistic unit for the individual subject.

Subjects judged the total duration of two intervals of time that varied from 0 to 30 sec. The data obeyed the parallelism prediction of a simple weighted adding model. According to functional measurement methodology, this observed parallelism provides joint support for the adding model and for the assumption that the graphic rating response provides a valid interval scale. Furthermore, parallelism allowed construction of the psychophysical time function. The obtained function was essentially linear in the range 0-30 sec. This result is compared with results of previous studies, with particular regard to the method of fractionation. The usefulness of establishing a validated interval response measure for further studies of time perception was pointed out.

Many theories of motivation employ algebraic models in which motivation acts as an amplifier or multiplier. Such multiplying models can be used as the essential basis for measurement of motivation, incentive, and other theoretical constructs by means of a linear fan analysis from functional measurement. A numerical example is presented, together with discussion of various problems of data analysis. Opportunities, difficulties, and precautions are discussed for extending this approach to test the operant matching law, the postulates of Hull-Spence theory, and general problems of stimulus integration with behavioral response measures.

Multiattribute analysis depends on measurement of values and weights. Unless these measures reflect the decision maker's true values and weights, the multiattribute formula may put a less-preferred alternative in first place. To avoid such disordinality requires stringent measurement conditions: First, the values and weights must be on linear (equal interval) or ratio (known zero) scales. Second, these scales must satisfy a condition of common unit across disparate attribute dimensions. Most methods of range adjustment beg both of these measurement questions. Functional measurement theory can solve both problems and so can be useful in multiattribute analysis. Past work has established the operation of a general cognitive algebra as an empirical reality. The averaging model, in particular, makes possible the definition and estimation of weights and values as distinct psychological parameters. It can also solve the problem of common unit. Cognitive algebra thus provides a grounded theoretical foundation on which to develop self-estimation methodology, in which decision makers provide direct estimates of their values and weights. The logic is straightforward. Functional measurement can analyze global judgments to obtain validated psychological scales. These scales may then be used as validational criteria for the self-estimates. Procedures to eliminate biases in the self-estimates can thus be tested and refined in well-learned multiattribute tasks, such as judgments of meals, in which global judgments are trustworthy. Once developed, such self-estimation procedures may be used with some confidence for general multiattribute analysis. A number of studies from 20-odd years of work on the theory of information integration are summarized to show good, although not unmixed promise for self-estimation.