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A Cas9/guide RNA-based gene drive strain, AgNosCd-1, was developed to deliver antiparasite effector molecules to the malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae The drive system targets the cardinal gene ortholog producing a red-eye phenotype. Drive can achieve 98 to 100% in both sexes and full introduction was observed in small cage trials within 6 to 10 generations following a single release of gene-drive males. No genetic load resulting from the integrated transgenes impaired drive performance in the trials. Potential drive-resistant target-site alleles arise at a frequency

Background: Selective tools, including selective insecticides and transgenic cotton, have been crucial in reducing insecticide usage within the integrated pest management (IPM) plan for Arizona cotton. To guide growers effectively, cotton field trials evaluated the effects of the novel insecticides, isocycloseram and afidopyropen against our primary pests, Bemisia argentifolii and Lygus hesperus, and their impacts on nontarget arthropods, including key predators: Collops spp., Orius tristicolor, Geocoris spp., Misumenops celer, Drapetis nr. divergens and Chrysoperla carnea s.l. Assessments involved over 27 arthropod taxa through community analyses, individual predator abundance, and biological control function via predator to prey ratios and a sentinel prey method. Comparisons were made with an untreated check, a proven fully selective insecticide (flonicamid) and acephate-treated positive controls., Results: Overall, relative to the untreated check, afidopyropen showed no significant differences, whereas isocycloseram exhibited some negative impacts, primarily reducing M. celer and Geocoris spp. nymphs, yet it was less detrimental compared with the positive control, acephate, and it did not affect four of the six key predators and most nontarget arthropods., Conclusion: Afidopyropen was classified as a fully selective insecticide and isocycloseram as a partially selective insecticide. Their fit for conservation biological control in Arizona cotton IPM and similar systems is discussed. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd., (© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

As stewards of public and environmental health, mosquito control agencies are rightfully concerned about impacts on nontarget organisms. This study examined the impact of a modern, pyrethroid based ground adulticide program using ultra-low volume applications in a metropolitan county in central Florida. Nontarget insects and mosquitoes were collected in a before-after control-impact design at 21 sites over 1.5 years. While mosquitoes were reduced, we found no evidence for reduction of nontarget insects, regardless of taxon. Night-flying Lepidoptera may experience greater risk than other nontarget taxa, but overall effects of adulticide missions on this group were low and inconsistent. Instead, meteorology, habitat, and phenology dominate patterns of nontarget abundance. Mosquito reduction was more clearly observed and corrected post-mission reduction was consistent with results expected in complex urban and suburban treatment zones., (Copyright © 2024 by The American Mosquito Control Association, Inc.)

The effects of microbial biopesticides used for mosquito control on autotrophic microorganisms such as nanophytoplankton are equivocal. We examined impacts of mosquito biopesticides and mosquito larvae on primary producers in two independent experiments. In the first experiment, we examined the effects of a commonly used microbial biopesticide formulation (VectoMax® CG) on a unicellular microalga, Selenastrum capricornatum Printz, under axenic laboratory conditions. The biopesticide treatments included two concentrations (0.008 and 0.016 g liter-1 ) of VectoMax® CG and two controls (one untreated and another with autoclaved 0.016 g VectoMax® CG liter-1 ) in replicated axenic experimental microcosms. Spectrophotometric analysis of chlorophyll a (proxy for algal biomass) and direct enumeration of algal cells following the treatments revealed no significant effects of the microbial biopesticide on algal population growth during the four-week study. In the second experiment, we tested the effects of different densities of Culex larvae on the population of S. capricornatum. Effects of mosquito larvae feeding on S. capricornatum were significant with a curvilinear relationship between larval density and algal abundance in the water column. Together, these studies demonstrated a lack of direct cytological/toxicological effects of Bacillus-based microbial pesticides on freshwater primary production and support the hypothesis that the reduction in algal primary production previously reported when Bti products were applied to aquatic environments was likely independent of the Bacillus-based larvicidal toxins. Instead, it was likely mediated by microbial interactions in the water column and the trophic cascade effects that resulted from the removal of larval mosquitoes. These studies suggest that mosquito larvae independent of pesticide application can influence primary production. Our method of evaluating biopesticides against small photoautotrophs can be very useful for studying the unintended effects on autotrophic microorganisms of other pesticides, including herbicides and pesticides applied to aquatic environments.

Abstract Organophosphate (OP) and carbamate (CM) insecticides are widely used in the United States and share the same mode of toxic action. Both classes are frequently documented in aquatic ecosystems, sometimes at levels that exceed aquatic life benchmarks. We previously identified a population of the nontarget amphipod, Hyalella azteca, thriving in an agricultural creek with high sediment levels of the OP chlorpyrifos, suggesting the population may have acquired genetic resistance to the pesticide. In the present study, we surveyed 17 populations of H. azteca in California to screen for phenotypic resistance to chlorpyrifos as well as genetic signatures of resistance in the acetylcholinesterase (ace‐1) gene. We found no phenotypic chlorpyrifos resistance in populations from areas with little or no pesticide use. However, there was ~3‐ to 1,000‐fold resistance in H. azteca populations from agricultural and/or urban areas, with resistance levels in agriculture being far higher than urban areas due to greater ongoing use of OP and CM pesticides. In every case of resistance in H. azteca, we identified a glycine‐to‐serine amino acid substitution (G119S) that has been shown to confer OP and CM resistance in mosquitoes and has been associated with resistance in other insects. We found that the G119S mutation was always present in a heterozygous state. Further, we provide tentative evidence of an ace‐1 gene duplication in H. azteca that may play a role in chlorpyrifos resistance in some populations. The detection of a genetically based, adaptive OP and CM resistance in some of the same populations of H. azteca previously shown to harbor a genetically based adaptive pyrethroid resistance indicates that these nontarget amphipod populations have become resistant to many of the insecticides now in common use. The terrestrial application of pesticides has provided strong selective pressures to drive evolution in a nontarget, aquatic species.

During the E-cigarette or Vaping product use Associated Lung Injury (EVALI) outbreak of August 2019 to February 2020, the California Department of Public Health, Food and Drug Laboratory Branch received numerous cannabis vape oil cartridge investigation samples from throughout the state. Many of these products were directly linked to patients; others were collected as part of investigations. We determined the major ingredients and additives in twelve unused cannabis vape oil cartridge samples obtained before (n = 2) and during the EVALI outbreak (n = 10) in California from September 2018 to December 2019. We tested for major constituents in vape oil liquid, vape oil vapor, and vape oil aerosol phases. A nontargeted Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry direct injection screening method was developed for vape oils, a headspace heating module used for vape oil vapors and a solid-phase microextraction (SPME) vaping rig for aerosols generated by vaping. We have identified more than 100 terpenes and natural extracts, 19 cannabinoids, and other potential toxic additives such as Vitamin E Acetate, Polyethylene Glycols, and Medium Chain Triglycerides. We determined more terpenes and minor cannabinoids can be produced via vaporizing and aerosolizing the vape oil. Delta9-THC and potential toxic additives were found at lower levels in the vapor and aerosol than in the vape liquid.

The Nantucket pine tip moth (NPTM) [ Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock)], a native regeneration pest on young loblolly pines (Pinus taeda L.), negatively impacts pine growth. An emerging management approach is to apply systemic insecticides to seedlings to reduce NPTM damage. These systemic insecticide applications generally occur once, perhaps twice, during the first few years of loblolly pine growth. However, these applications could lead to unintended environmental consequences to nontarget organisms. The purpose of this study was to assess potential nontarget effects from four systemic insecticide applications by assessing ground-dwelling arthropod trap catch, with a focus on collembolan trap catch and genera richness. Loblolly seedlings (24 seedlings per plot) at three sites in southeast Georgia were treated with either chlorantraniliprole, dinotefuran, fipronil, or imidacloprid or left untreated as a control. Arthropods were collected with pitfall traps that were deployed for 5 d in July, August, and September 2019, 7–9 mo after treatment. Ground-dwelling arthropod trap catch, arthropod order trap catch, collembolan trap catch, and collembolan genera richness did not vary among insecticide treatments and the untreated control in this mid-term insecticide risk assessment. While no significant effects of insecticide treatment were observed, ground-dwelling arthropod trap catch, collembolan trap catch, and collembolan genera richness differed among collection times. This study was the first of its kind in a young pine stand setting and is an important first step to understanding risk in these settings. Information on nontarget risks of management practices informs growers of the level of environmental risk associated with systemic insecticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) designed to target genes in a sequence-specific manner can be valuable in pest control. However, in scenarios where a nontarget could be susceptible and is predicted to be exposed to insecticidal dsRNA in the environment, it is useful to understand possible gene silencing effects in the nontarget. In this study, a sequence complementarity-based approach was used to evaluate potential gene silencing effects in the bumblebee, Bombus terrestris, following oral exposure to a fusion dsRNA product (Ba-dsCOP-vg) specifically designed to target both alpha-coatomer (alphaCOP) and vitellogenin (vg) in the pest pollen beetle, Brassicogethes aeneus. The susceptibility of bumblebees to ingested dsRNA was first evaluated by feeding them with bumblebee-specific dsRNA (Bt-dsCOP-vg) (1 µg/µl) targeting its alphaCOP and vg. A respective 50% and 47% reduction in the transcripts of alphaCOP and vg at 96 h post exposure confirmed its susceptibility to the ingested dsRNA. Using computational tools, a pool of all possible continuous 22-nucleotide stretches from Ba-dsCOP-vg was generated and mapped to all potential off-target genes in the B. terrestris genome, with at least a 13-nt match within the 22-nt stretch. A set of criteria based on sequence complementarity was then used to select 24 potential off-targets for transcript analysis in bumblebees. Following ingestion of Ba-dsCOP-vg (1 µg/µl), no reduction was found in the transcript level for all off-targets, including an off-target with 20-continuous-nt matches. Our findings provide guidance to future risk analysis of dsRNA products and for risk assessments frameworks that incorporate sequence complementarity-based analysis for off-target predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was aimed at the identification of the Neuroptera (Insecta) obtained with McPhail traps in an orchard of native and exotic fruits in Jaboticabal, SP, Brazil (21°14’S / 48°17’W). Weekly sampling took place between May 2009 and April 2010. 187 specimens of Neuroptera were obtained: Nusalala tessellata (Gerstaecker, 1888) (Hemerobiidae) (176 specimens / 94.1% of the total), Leucochrysa cruentata (Schneider, 1851) (6 / 3.2%), Ceraeochrysa cubana (Hagen, 1861), Ceraeochrysa everes (Banks, 1920), Chrysoperla externa (Hagen, 1861), Leucochrysa affinis Freitas & Penny, 2001 and Leucochrysa rodriguezi (Navás, 1913) (Chrysopidae) (1 / 0.5%, each species). Nusalala tessellata was the most abundant species, with the highest frequencies recorded in August 2009 and March 2010; such frequencies coincided with the fructification of Vangueria madagascariensis Gmelin (Rubiaceae) and Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae), respectively. The use of McPhail traps can assist in the detection of beneficial insects in agroecosystems and establishment of better sustainable control measures.

Neonicotinoids are the most widely used insecticide class worldwide, and unfortunately, the widely used neonicotinoid imidacloprid is problematic for pollinators and other nontarget organisms. These nontarget impacts and the development of resistance prompt the ongoing development and testing of new neonicotinoids. The novel neonicotinoid cycloxaprid was described in 2011 and registered in China in 2015. Studies investigating its use and effect on target and nontarget species are recent and ongoing, and empirical evidence has not yet been collectively considered. Therefore, a systematic review was performed to identify and summarize data associated with target and nontarget, lethal and sublethal impacts of cycloxaprid for its use as a new insecticide. We performed keyword literature searches in Web of Science, PubMed, Academic Search Complete, and Google Scholar and explored citations used in identified articles. The search strategy yielded 66 citations; 25 citations fulfilled eligibility criteria and were included in the review. Under experimental conditions, cycloxaprid reduced populations of plant‐feeding insect pests, suppressed populations of sucking and biting insect pests, and affected reproduction, development time, longevity, growth, gene regulation and expression, and phloem‐feeding behavior of various life stages of certain insects. Studies focus on pest control efficacy and comparison with imidacloprid. Five nontarget organisms have been evaluated: Apis mellifera, Chrysoperla sinica, Harmonia axyridis, Daphnia magna, and Eisenia fetida. Variation in study design, to date, precludes a metaanalysis. However, these results provide valuable insight into possible effects to target and nontarget arthropods. Because cycloxaprid is a new insecticide, additional research is needed to clarify the mechanism of action of cycloxaprid and its metabolites, and to determine if it harms natural enemies or other nontarget organisms, if resistance develops, and if it exhibits cross‐resistance with other insecticides. Although research on target arthropods will inform some effects on nontarget organisms, studies focusing explicitly on impacts to nontarget organisms are needed. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2020;16:831–840. © 2020 SETAC KEY POINTS: Data from studies indicate that under experimental conditions, the proposed imidacloprid replacement cycloxaprid has lethal and sublethal effects on nontarget species, that is, Apis mellifera, Chrysoperla sinica, Harmonia axyridis, Daphnia magna, and Eisenia fetida.Cycloxaprid concentrations causing mortality in the target and nontarget arthropod species tested were generally lower than or similar to concentrations of imidacloprid.Cycloxaprid readiness for insect pest control is premature.Future studies focusing explicitly on impacts to nontarget organisms are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

American chestnut (Castanea dentata [Marsh.] Borkh.) was once the dominant hardwood species in Eastern North America before an exotic fungal pathogen, Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) Barr, functionally eliminated it across its range. One promising approach toward restoring American chestnut to natural forests is development of blight‐tolerant trees using genetic transformation. However, transformation and related processes can result in unexpected and unintended phenotypic changes, potentially altering ecological interactions. To assess unintended tritrophic impacts of transgenic American chestnut on plant–herbivore interactions, gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar L.) caterpillars were fed leaf disks excised from two transgenic events, Darling 54 and Darling 58, and four control American chestnut lines. Leaf disks were previously treated with an LD50 dose of either the species‐specific Lymantria dispar multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (LdMNPV) or the generalist pathogen Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Btk). Mortality was quantified and compared to water blank controls. Tree genotype had a strong effect on the efficacies of both pathogens. Larval mortality from Btk‐treated foliage from only one transgenic event, Darling 54, differed from its isogenic progenitor, Ellis 1, but was similar to an unrelated wild‐type American chestnut control. LdMNPV efficacy was unaffected by genetic transformation. Results suggest that although genetic modification of trees may affect interactions with other nontarget organisms, this may be due to insertion effects, and variation among different genotypes (whether transgenic or wild‐type) imparts a greater change in response than transgene presence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organophosphate (OP) and carbamate (CM) insecticides are widely used in the United States and share the same mode of toxic action. Both classes are frequently documented in aquatic ecosystems, sometimes at levels that exceed aquatic life benchmarks. We previously identified a population of the nontarget amphipod, Hyalella azteca, thriving in an agricultural creek with high sediment levels of the OP chlorpyrifos, suggesting the population may have acquired genetic resistance to the pesticide. In the present study, we surveyed 17 populations of H. azteca in California to screen for phenotypic resistance to chlorpyrifos as well as genetic signatures of resistance in the acetylcholinesterase (ace‐1) gene. We found no phenotypic chlorpyrifos resistance in populations from areas with little or no pesticide use. However, there was ~3‐ to 1,000‐fold resistance in H. azteca populations from agricultural and/or urban areas, with resistance levels in agriculture being far higher than urban areas due to greater ongoing use of OP and CM pesticides. In every case of resistance in H. azteca, we identified a glycine‐to‐serine amino acid substitution (G119S) that has been shown to confer OP and CM resistance in mosquitoes and has been associated with resistance in other insects. We found that the G119S mutation was always present in a heterozygous state. Further, we provide tentative evidence of an ace‐1 gene duplication in H. azteca that may play a role in chlorpyrifos resistance in some populations. The detection of a genetically based, adaptive OP and CM resistance in some of the same populations of H. azteca previously shown to harbor a genetically based adaptive pyrethroid resistance indicates that these nontarget amphipod populations have become resistant to many of the insecticides now in common use. The terrestrial application of pesticides has provided strong selective pressures to drive evolution in a nontarget, aquatic species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advancements in analytical chemistry and data analyses via high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) are evolving scientific understanding of the potential totality of organic chemical exposure and pollutant risk. This review addresses the importance of HRMS approaches, namely suspect screening and nontarget chemical analyses, to the realm of phytoremediation. These analytical approaches are not without caveats and constraints, but they provide an opportunity to understand in greater totality how plant-based technologies contribute, mitigate, and reduce organic chemical exposure across scales of experimental and system-level studies. These analytical tools can enlighten the complexity and efficacy of plant-contaminant system design and expand our understanding of biogenic and anthropogenic chemicals at work in phytoremediation systems. Advances in data analytics from biological sciences, such as metabolomics, are crucial to HRMS analysis. This review provides an overview of targeted, suspect screening, and nontarget HRMS approaches, summarizes the expanding knowledge of regulated and unregulated organic chemicals in the environment, addresses requisite HRMS instrumentation, analysis cost, uncertainty, and data processing techniques, and offers potential bridges of HRMS analyses to phytoremediation research and application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Antibiotic residues have been commonly detected worldwide in freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems. The review summarizes the up-to-date information about the toxic effects of over 60 antibiotics on nontarget autotrophic microorganisms with a particular focus on marine microalgae. A comprehensive overview of the available reports led to the identification of significant knowledge gaps. The data on just one species of freshwater green algae (Raphidocelis subcapitata) constitute 60% of the total information on the toxicity of antibiotics, while data on marine species account for less than 14% of the reports. Moreover, there is a clear knowledge gap regarding the chronic effects of antibiotic exposure (only 9% of studies represent exposition time values longer than 7 days). The review summarizes the information on different physiological endpoints, including processes involved in photosynthesis, photoprotective and antioxidant mechanisms. Currently, the hazard assessment is mostly based on the results of the evaluation of individual chemicals and acute toxicity tests of freshwater organisms. Future research trends should involve chronic effect studies incorporating sensitive endpoints with the application of environmentally relevant concentrations, as well as studies on the mixture effects and combined environmental factors influencing toxicity.

In the construction of complex antenna structures, a number of feature points are inevitably formed on the main reflector surface of the antenna structure by bolting, riveting, cabling, and welding. In this study, the intersection point determination method using close-range photogrammetry was investigated. 3D position coordinates of many feature points distributed on the inner surface of a parabolic reflector were extracted using close-range photogrammetry. The fitting lines were estimated for the feature points arranged in the radial direction of the parabolic reflector, which tend to intersect at the center point of the reflector. The intersection point between the estimated fitting lines was calculated. The numerical variation of the intersection points on the three axes, which are accumulated through regular time-series calculations, can be used to intuitively predict and analyze not only the deformation rates but also the deformation directions for the shape of the parabolic reflector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Effective management of ground squirrels relies on an integrated pest management (IPM) approach. Rodenticides may be included in an IPM program, but they must be efficacious with minimal impact on nontarget species. A zinc phosphide‐coated green bait may meet these requirements. We established a study in northeastern California to test zinc phosphide‐coated cabbage as a management tool for Belding's ground squirrels (Urocitellus beldingi). We specifically addressed factors that would influence the efficacy of a baiting program, as well as potential exposure risk to nontarget species. RESULTS: We found that prebaiting was an important application strategy, and efficacy increased as ground squirrel abundance increased. Efficacy was also greater in western portions of the study area, likely due to greater bait consumption at western sites. Belding's ground squirrels fed most heavily on cabbage during mid‐morning and late afternoon; bait applications shortly before these time periods would increase bait consumption while minimizing nontarget risk. Bait uptake was greatest around burrow entrances. The only nontarget species observed feeding on cabbage was the California kangaroo rat (Dipodomys californicus), although they were never observed feeding on treated cabbage. CONCLUSION: Zinc phosphide‐coated cabbage can be an efficacious tool for managing ground squirrels, but there will be limitations on where and how it can be used effectively. It posed a low risk to nontarget species present in our study area, but nontarget risk could vary regionally. The use of a zinc phosphide‐coated green bait should only be one part of an IPM strategy for managing ground squirrels. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Responses of free-roaming coyotes (Canis latrans) to four chemical attractants (W-U lure, artificial beef liver flavor, artificial smoked fish flavor, and Fatty Acid Scent) used on M-44 tops were measured during the summer months in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Washington, and Wyoming. Visitation and pull rates varied throughout the study period from area to area and appeared to be associated with weather, food abundance, and coyote densities. Fatty Acid Scent and W-U lure produced the highest visitation and pull rates.

Burrowing owls (Speotyto cunicularia) were monitored over a four year period at Naval Air Station North Island, a developed area at the north end of San Diego Bay, California. Protection of the nest burrows and a burrow marking program were initiated in 1991. The breeding population increased from 14 to 27 nests after this marking program began. Burrow types and ways to differentiate burrows used by owls from those used by California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) are outlined. The importance of burrows and their management is discussed with reference to the natural history of the owl.

This paper presents a methodological approach that was recently developed to determine alternatives for control of California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) and the resulting ecological consequences at the Concord Naval Weapons Station (CNWS). The U.S. Navy initiated this study upon determining a need to control ground squirrels for safety reasons. The squirrel's ecological role at CNWS was examined by estimating squirrel abundance and distribution throughout CNWS, analyzing predator diets, and determining the squirrel's relationship to the California tiger salamander (Ambystoma californiense). In addition, the efficacy of live capture and translocation of squirrels as a possible control method was specifically examined using an experimental approach. Finally, alternative control measures are reviewed and discussed in the context of our results. The emphasis of this paper is on the methods employed and the discussion of alternatives as an example of an ecologically-based approach to control programs. As wide-scale poisoning control programs have recently come under public opposition in the courts and otherwise, studies such as these will serve to direct future management efforts toward control programs that consider several alternatives and their ecological effects.

Toxins are a major component of rabbit control campaigns in New Zealand, with sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) being the primary toxin in use since the 1950s. However, landowners can use 1080 only under the direct supervision of a licensed operator, and rabbit populations in regularly-poisoned areas have become increasingly resistant to this form of control. A new, cost-effective toxin that does not cause persistent residues in livestock is required by landowners who wish to undertake their own rabbit control. Several recent trials have demonstrated the potential of the anticoagulant pindone (2-pivalyl-1,3-indandione) to meet these requirements. In 1992, the New Zealand Pesticides Board granted full registration to cereal pindone pellets, so that for the first time the New Zealand public has access to a rabbit bait that does not require a licence for its use. The bait is being used with apparent success in a wide range of situations, with sales of the product exceeding 100 ton in 1993.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal Plant and Health Inspection Service (APHIS) maintains six federal registrations for zinc phosphide (Zn3P2); three of these address the control of eight rodent species using steam-rolled oats (SRO) or wheat grains in diverse applications. Optimal foraging theory (OFT) and "particle dose analysis" (PDA) afford predictions relevant to the efficacy, acceptance, bait shyness, and non-target hazards of these Zn3P2 baits. For PDA, numbers of SRO groats or whole wheat grains associated with acute oral median lethal (LD50) or approximate lethal (ALD) doses of Zn3P2 were compared among nine target rodent and eleven non-target avian species. Key outcomes were: 1) mean (±S.D.) SRO groats and wheat grains weighed 23 (±9) and 18 (±9) mg [assumed to carry ≈0.46 (2.0%) and ≈0.33 (1.82 %) mg Zn3P2, respectively; 2) published acute oral LD50 values for the target rodents ranged between 16.2 and 18.0 mg/kg, with a 42.0 mg/kg ALD cited for the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus); 3) estimated minimum-maximum number of SRO groats and wheat grains needed for ingestion of the LD50/ALD doses by target species were 1.6 to 39.1 and 1.7 to 3.8, respectively; and 4) estimated minimum-maximum number of SRO groats and wheat grains associated with primary LD50/ALD hazards to nontarget avian species were 1.3 to 175.8 and 1.8 to 245.1, respectively. Theoretical implications of OFT and PDA to efficacy, acceptance, bait shyness, and specificity of Zn3P2 baits in rodent control are provided; the potential effects of food-handling time, bait-search time, predator density, social-dominance hierarchy, food-intake pattern, and bait-distribution pattern are discussed.

Laboratory studies were conducted to determine an effective DRC-1339 concentration and bait dilution ratio to control pigeons. Treated whole corn baits formulated with Alcolec-s®, corn starch, or corn oil as adhesive agents and 0.25% or 0.37% DRC-1339 diluted 1:5 with untreated corn produced < 10% mortality. DRC-1339 treated whole corn baits (0.25% and 0.37%) diluted 1:0 and formulated with Alcolec-s® produced 20% and 5% mortality, respectively. Whole corn treated with 0.37% DRC-1339, diluted 1:0, and formulated with corn starch produced 68% mortality in laboratory-held pigeons and was selected for further evaluations in field studies to provide efficacy data to the EPA. DRC-1339 residue levels observed in pigeons free-feeding on 0.37% undiluted DRC-1339 treated corn was not detected in breast tissue and only occurred in the gastrointestinal tract of two of five pigeons at 0.06 and 0.19 ppm. DRC-1339 residues observed in pigeons force-fed 21 whole corn kernels treated with 0.37% DRC-1339 (approximately 5 times the LD50 dose) were not detectable after 3 h in breast tissue and 24 h in the gastrointestinal tract. DRC-1339 residues in pigeons gavaged with 58 mg DRC-1339 (over 10 times the LD50 dose) were detectable in the breast muscle of four of nine pigeons at 0.061 to 0.10 ppm. DRC-1339 residues in the gastrointestinal tract ranged from 0.13 to > 17 ppm in eight of nine treated pigeons and was not detectable in the remaining pigeon.

Several small nesting colonies of the endangered California least tern (Sterna antillarum browni) remain along the California coast. The largest of these is located on Camp Pendleton Marine Base in southern California. Many forms of disturbance have apparently contributed to the decline of this tern species, including corvid, primarily raven (Corvus corax) predation on the eggs. Efforts to eliminate corvid predation have primarily focused on shooting offending birds; this method is selective, but it has inherent public safety problems. In 1988, biologists from the Denver Wildlife Research Center (DWRC) and the U.S. Navy, in cooperation with USDA Animal Damage Control personnel, conducted a pilot study at Camp Pendleton to determine if corvids could be selectively removed by consuming hard-boiled chicken eggs treated with the avicide DRC-1339. Thirty-six treated eggs, 6 per clutch, were exposed in dummy ground nests in raven nesting territories in the vicinity of one of the tern colonies. Egg baits were readily consumed by ravens, but several others were cached. After selectively removing only three to four ravens with this method, the least tern fledging rate for 1988 at Camp Pendleton was the highest in recent years. The success of this pilot study led to a series of Navy-funded studies conducted by DWRC biologists from 1989 through 1992, including investigations of the activities of ravens in the vicinity of tern colonies and the development/evaluation of potential methods to reduce corvid predation on least tern eggs. This abstract describes research conducted at Camp Pendleton in 1990 to identify species of nontarget animals that might consume (1) egg baits that could be used to deliver a toxicant and (2) the carcasses of corvids that might be killed by consuming toxicant-treated eggs. Eighty-seven untreated eggs and 13 untreated corvid carcasses were placed in various habitats and locations within 4 to 5 km of tern colonies during the tern breeding season. Some were placed in known raven nesting territories. One to two eggs were secured to each of 15 4-ft-high bait platforms and placed on the ground at 7 locations. Eggs were replenished as necessary during an observation period. A fresh carcass was secured to the ground at each of 13 locations. Each site was observed continuously for approximately 72 to 96 hours by infra-red, motion-sensing cameras to determine nontarget activity. No nontarget animals consumed eggs from platforms during 1,112 hours of observations. During 433 hours of observations of eggs on the ground, only one species of nontarget animal, the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), was recorded feeding on eggs at one station during the night. Gulls (Larus sp.) were continually present in large numbers in the vicinity of exposed eggs, but did not feed on them. Observations of untreated corvid carcasses, monitored for 1,030 hours, revealed only occasional scavenging by skunk, opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), and raven. The data suggest that eggs used in a toxicant baiting operation (e.g., DRC-1339) to control corvids, or carcasses of corvids dying as a result of such a baiting operation, pose minimal nontarget hazards. Although there are no data available on the primary and secondary toxicity of DRC-1339 to the nontarget species observed in this study, data from other species tested with this compound suggest none is likely to be killed by ingesting DRC-1339-treated eggs, nor by scavenging corvid carcasses. Of the 87 eggs used in this study, ravens and crows, the target species consumed 22 (46%) of the 48 eggs placed on platforms. Thirty-three of the 39 eggs placed on the ground were consumed− 7 (21%) by skunk(s) at one station at night and 26 (79%) by ravens, exclusively within nesting territories. It appears that ground baiting during daylight hours is the most effective method of exposing treated eggs to target corvids, while minimizing nontarget consumption of eggs.

Aversive agents are proposed as potential additives to rodenticides to increase selectivity to the target species. Examples of various aversive agent categories are given, including odorants, tastants, and emetics, with examples of evaluations. Tastant additives have been found that do not interfere with rodenticidal efficacy. Denatonium benzoate (commercially available as Bitrex®) is an intensely bitter but non-toxic substance, being increasingly used to adulterate common household materials to reduce the potential risks involved with accidental exposures. No known prior research results have been published concerning the incorporation of Bitrex in rodenticides. Rate determination studies utilizing different rodenticidal formulations were conducted. A Bitrex level of 10 ppm was well accepted by wild commensal rats and mice in laboratory tests of brodifacoum pellet and wax block formulations (TALON®, KLERA T® rodenticides). Bait samples with this level of Bitrex (without anticoagulant) were evaluated in a human taste panel study. Samples with Bitrex were found to show significantly greater average rejection by the panel than similar samples without Bitrex. Field trial results are reviewed, which verified the efficacy of Bitrex-containing commensal rodenticides. The potential role of Bitrex or similar taste deterrents as rodenticide additives is considered opposite accidental toxicant exposure statistics, and perceptions relating to rodenticides and other pesticides.

Anticoagulant rodenticides may pose a secondary poisoning hazard to non-target predators and scavengers because of the time-delay between ingestion of a lethal dose and death of a target rodent. We investigated some pre-lethal effects of an anticoagulant rodenticide on the behaviour of wild rats in cages and in enclosures. We found that social interactions shortened time to death, that most rats died away from cover and that thigmotactic behaviour was reduced in the enclosures. The normal light-dark rhythm was upset in intoxicated rats in both cages and enclosures. Thus pre-lethal effects are likely to alter the exposure of predators and scavengers to intoxicated rats, and diurnal predators may be exposed more than nocturnal predators as a consequence. We stress the need to extend these behaviour studies to the field.

To differentiate the causes of bleeding disorders requires a basic understanding of the hemostatic process and the proper interpretation of history, physical examination, and laboratory tests. A brief overview of the hemostatic process is presented. Tables and flow charts are provided to assist in developing a sound clinical approach to the bleeding patient through the proper assessment of history, physical examination findings, and laboratory tests. Categories of inherited and acquired bleeding disorders are briefly presented.

Anticoagulant rodenticides act at the hepatic level where they are more or less fixed according to their lipophilic nature. The studies on kinetics and metabolism carried out with no toxic doses are useful to know how products act but do not allow to anticipate the toxicity risks for nontarget species, because of low residual contents. These risks can only be assessed after the administration of toxic doses taking into account the residue levels. The use of half-life to express the results is not sufficiently accurate and may lead to wrong conclusions. The studies involving the residue and secondary toxicity levels are more accurate for assessing the risks. Some examples are given in particular for bromadiolone.

The effectiveness of bait and the effectiveness of operational baiting were both evaluated for controlling forest pocket gophers (Thomomys spp.) with strychnine oat groat bait and diphacinone paraffin block bait. Radio-telemetry monitoring and recovery of pocket gophers showed that control of individual pocket gophers 1 month after baiting was 72% for strychnine bait and 62% for diphacinone bait. Reduction in pocket gopher activity from operational baiting was based on censusing activity in sample plots. After 1 month the reduction in activity was 61% for strychnine oats and 36% for diphacinone blocks. Bait blocks implanted with radio transmitters were extensively moved and fed on by pocket gophers. Pocket gopher activity was not significantly reduced by either treatment 6 months or 1 year after baiting.

A field efficacy study was completed using Wilco Ground Squirrel Bait (containing 0.005% chlorophacinone) to control California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) in Madera County, California. Bait was applied in plastic stations at the rate of 2 lbs. per station. Two plots with buffer zones were treated (about 11.5 acres each). Visual and burrow counts were used as the census indices to determine field efficacy. Pretreatment and posttreatment census observations were conducted over three days pretest and three days posttreatment. Efficacy after 21 days was 94.4% for plot T-1 and 100% on plot T-2 using visual counts. Burrow count data was similar with the T-1 efficacy of 95.1% and T-2 of 95.8%. Tissue residue analysis was completed on muscle, liver and gut remains in recovered ground squirrels and non-target wildlife. Partial carcasses of two cottontail rabbits were found on the plots. Turkey vultures were observed on the study area daily. The numbers and size of vultures observed and the quantity of dead squirrels recorded on the ground surface would tend to indicate no significant impact on the vulture population nor on other wildlife in the treatment area.

A laboratory study was conducted in which tissues from zinc phosphide-killed black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) were fed to domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius). Prairie dogs were fed a 2.03% zinc phosphide bait and upon death, two tissue complexes were prepared: stomach, liver, and intestines, and the remaining carcass. Five male and five female ferrets were each fed one of the two treated tissue complexes. A similar number of ferrets were each fed one of the two control tissue complexes. No poisoning symptoms or emesis were observed and no ferret mortality occurred. Zinc phosphide residue was determined in 10 prairie dog carcasses; 99.9% was found in the stomachs and small intestines. Residues were also detected in the large intestine, caeca, kidneys, and gall bladder/liver, none were found in the lungs, heart, or muscle. The low amounts of zinc phosphide remaining in the carcasses, the absence of ferret mortality, poisoning symptoms or emesis, despite the emetic properties of zinc phosphide, confirm that the risk of secondary poisoning from zinc phosphide is unlikely.

Animals in Australia vary greatly in their sensitivity to 1080 poison, with known LD50's ranging from 0.11 to over 800 mg kg-1. Many native species, particularly in western Australia, have evolved tolerances to 1080 through ingestion of native plants that contain fluoroacetate or prey that consume those plants. Despite this, some native species, particularly a few herbivorous mammals, birds and rodents, could be poisoned during control campaigns against vertebrate pests. Field studies indicate that poisoning campaigns are not significantly affecting populations of common non-target animals, but further impact studies are required on vulnerable, rare, endangered, or uncommon species.

The acute oral LD50 of Compound 1080 to magpies was estimated at 1.78 mg/kg indoors, 1.91 mg/kg outdoors in summer, and 2.30 mg/kg outdoors in winter. Postmortem 1080 residues were detected in 75 of76 treated birds. Higher doses yielded higher 1080 residues. Within dose levels, birds surviving longer carried lower residues. In a separate test, an average residue of 0.09 ppm was found in 8 birds treated at 1.59 mg/kg and euthanized 24 h post dosing. The adjusted dietary LC50 of Compound 1080 to magpies tested indoors was estimated at 16 ppm. During LC50 tests, the influence of 1080 on food consumption and bird weight varied. Birds receiving low doses were unaffected and those receiving high doses died quickly. Birds that were affected but did not die quickly, usually lost weight but only slightly reduced food intake. All birds that died had detectable 1080 residue in breast muscle. Birds fed higher 1080 dietary concentrations probably exhibited higher residues postmortem. Our adjusted average LD50 (2.12 mg/kg) appeared somewhat higher than reported in the literature; nonetheless, magpies are very sensitive to 1080. No sex differences were noted. Age, metabolic influences, or cold temperatures might explain the high LD50 value estimated for winter. The detection of 1080 residue in tissue samples is a useful tool for assessing 1080 exposure in magpies−but it might not be unequivocal.

Vertebrate pest control measures may have an impact on nontarget wildlife. Bird and rodent control programs using avicides and rodenticides in California have been, and are currently being, examined by the California Department of Fish and Game on a routine basis. Each pesticide used has its deleterious side effects. This paper reviews these side effects and suggests possible future impacts which could be expected.

A 2.2-ha cedar and mixed deciduous tree woodlot in Crawford, Mississippi, harboring 330,000 blackbirds (Icterinae) and European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) was aerially sprayed by helicopter the night of 1 March 1989 with 1050 I. of a CPT-avicide formulation at a rate of 49 kg CPT/ha. Most mortality occurred within 36 h of treatment. Mortality in the roost was 3% of the pretreatment population. No reliable technique to estimate out-of-roost mortality was identified. Pilot misapplication and probable CPT volatilization of the spray formulation contributed to the low mortality. Only 1 of 37 radiotagged blackbirds using the roost the night of the spray was verified as a CPT-related mortality. Pre- and post-treatment numbers of hawks and owls in and near the roost did not differ (P > 0.05). Dead nontarget animals found in and near the roost included 10 cardinals (Richmondena cardinalis), 1 robin (Turdus migratorius), and 1 least shrew (Cryptotis parva). Additional research is needed to develop methodologies for evaluating the efficacy of slow-acting toxicants.

Conservation biological control (CBC) has widely benefited from ecological practices that enhance both the crop and its surrounding environment. However, use of insecticides, whether biological or synthetic compounds, is often detrimental to natural enemies. By definition toxic to insects, insecticides may cause direct mortality of natural enemies, reduce food resources (prey/host), or disrupt behavioral and biological processes. Therefore, choosing a selective insecticide or selectively applying are important decisions for conserving natural enemies if insecticide is required. In situations where both insecticide and natural enemy do not share the same target pest, an additive outcome is expected and CBC can minimize pest outbreaks and resurgence. Given that new, selective insecticides are usually more expensive than older ones, using the former typically adds cost per treated area. Therefore, choosing a selective insecticide becomes a matter of benefits and costs, considering the cost compared to other available treatments and potential pest problems. Beyond the differential toxicity of selective insecticides to natural enemy and target pest species, some human decisions may produce insecticide selectivity, including application of minimal effective rates, and spatiotemporal separation of nonselective insecticides and natural enemies. These concepts are discussed here using two major crop commodities in Brazil: soybean and cotton. We show that natural enemies and selective insecticides can be effectively combined to manage arthropod pest populations even in agroecosystems highly dependent on chemical control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Restoration of fisheries often requires removal of invasive fishes. Although piscicides such as antimycin a and rotenone are reliable and cost‐effective tools for such removals, they may reduce the abundance of nontarget species directly via toxicity‐induced mortality (toxic effect) or indirectly via loss of prey (trophic effect). Toxic effects are well documented in some taxa, especially in benthic macroinvertebrates (BMIs). Yet, the corresponding trophic effects on nonpiscine, aquatic, and riparian species remain unstudied. I tested for a trophic effect of piscicides using a population of American Dippers (Cinclus mexicanus), songbirds that feed extensively on BMIs. I caught breeding birds and estimated body condition before, during, and after treatment of the stream with antimycin a or rotenone. Birds exhibited poorer body condition (3.0–3.7% lower body mass) during treatment than before or after treatment. These differences suggested that treatment reduced prey availability enough to impact birds at least 9 months after application. Therefore, continued use of piscicides for fish restoration would benefit from (1) site‐specific comparison of benefits of invasive fish removal to costs of potential or documented toxic and trophic effects of piscicides on nontarget organisms; (2) continued adherence to best practices for recovery of the BMI community after piscicide treatment; and (3) experimental study of piscicide impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), is an exotic pest of eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière (Pinales: Pinaceae), in the eastern United States. Two commonly used insecticides to manage adelgid are imidacloprid, a systemic neonicotinoid insecticide, and horticultural oil, a refined petroleum oil foliar spray. We have investigated the influence of imidacloprid and horticultural oil on spider abundance at different canopy strata in eastern hemlock. In total, 2,084 spiders representing 11 families were collected from the canopies of eastern hemlock. In beat-sheet and direct observation samples, the families Theridiidae, Araneidae, Salticidae, and Anyphaenidae were the most abundant. Significantly higher numbers of spiders were recorded on untreated control trees compared with trees treated with imidacloprid using soil drench and soil injection applications. Spider abundance in trees injected with imidacloprid and horticultural oil applications did not significantly differ from control trees. Spider abundance was significantly greater in the top and middle strata of the canopy than in the bottom stratum, where imidacloprid concentrations were the highest. Regression analysis showed that spider abundance was inversely associated with imidacloprid concentration. This research demonstrates that imidacloprid, when applied with selected methods, has the potential to result in reductions of spider densities at different strata. However, slight reductions in spider abundance may be an acceptable short-term ecological impact compared with the loss of an untreated hemlock and all the associated ecological benefits that it provides. Future studies should include investigations of long-term impact of imidacloprid on spiders associated with eastern hemlock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pesticide runoff from terrestrial environments into waterways is often lethal to freshwater organisms, but exposure may also drive evolution of pesticide resistance. We analyzed the degree of resistance and molecular genetic changes underlying resistance in Hyalella azteca, a species complex of freshwater crustaceans inadvertently exposed to pesticide pollution via runoff. We surveyed 16 waterways encompassing most major watersheds throughout California and found that land use patterns are predictive of both pyrethroid presence in aquatic sediments and pyrethroid resistance in H. azteca. Nonsynonymous amino acid substitutions in the voltage-gated sodium channel including the M918L, L925I, or L925V confer resistance in H. azteca. The most frequently identified mutation, L925I, appears to be preferred within the species complex. The L925V substitution has been associated with pyrethroid resistance in another insect, but is novel in H. azteca. We documented a variety of pyrethroid resistance mutations across several species groups within this complex, indicating that pyrethroid resistance has independently arisen in H. azteca at least six separate times. Further, the high frequency of resistance alleles indicates that pesticide-mediated selection on H. azteca populations in waterways equals or exceeds that of targeted terrestrial pests. Widespread resistance throughout California suggests current practices to mitigate off-site movement of pyrethroids are inadequate to protect aquatic life from negative ecological impacts and implies the likelihood of similar findings globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of transgenic cotton Bollgard II on the abundance of nontarget arthropods was assessed under field conditions in three areas in Burkina Faso for four successive years (2010-2013)., The experiment was carried out on two 0.5-ha plots of which one was seeded with the Bollgard II and one with the non- Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner ( Bt) isogenic cultivar., Over four collection methods [plastic bagging (28 collections), water trap (28 collections), beat cloth (six collections) and pitfall traps (six collections)] and 4 years, no statistically significant differences were detected between Bollgard II and the conventional control for 45 out of 48 comparisons., Differences detected were rather random and not consistently detected across collection methods, sites and/or years. Thus, these differences were not indicative of a consistent response associated with the trait and are not considered biologically meaningful in terms of an adverse environmental impact (nontarget arthropod abundance) of Bollgard II compared to conventional cotton receiving six insecticide sprays. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasitoids and neonicotinoids can both suppress economically harmful filth fly populations. However, sublethal effects of neonicotinoids have not previously been studied for commonly used species of filth fly parasitoids. Exposure to an LC of imidacloprid decreased the ability of surviving individuals of the parasitoid wasp Spalangia endius Walker (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) to kill house fly pupae under some conditions. In an unburied-hosts experiment, significantly more flies and fewer parasitoids emerged in the LC imidacloprid treatment versus the LC or controls. Parasitoid sex ratio and longevity were not affected. However, in a buried-hosts experiment, parasitoid and fly emergence were independent of treatment. ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) showed lower imidacloprid residues in or on parasitoids exposed to the media in which hosts were buried. Our findings suggest that substrate may reduce pesticides on biological control agents that burrow, making them more effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zequanox® is a commercial formulation of the killed bacterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens (strain CL145A), that was developed to control dreissenid mussels. In 2014, Zequanox became the second product registered by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for use in open water environments as a molluscicide. Previous nontarget studies demonstrated the safety and selectivity of P. fluorescens CL154A, but the database on the toxicity of the formulation (Zequanox) is limited for macroinvertebrate taxa and exposure conditions. We evaluated the safety of Zequanox to the amphipod Gammarus lacustris lacustris, and nymphs of the burrowing mayfly, Hexagenia spp. at the maximum approved concentration (100 mg/L active ingredient, A.I.) and exposure duration (8 h). Survival of animals was assessed after 8 h of exposure and again at 24 and 96 h post-exposure. Histopathology of the digestive tract of control and treated animals was compared at 96 h post-exposure. The results showed no significant effect of Zequanox on survival of either species. Survival of G. lacustris exceeded 85% in all concentrations at all three sampling time points. Survival of Hexagenia spp. ranged from 71% (control) to 91% at 8 h, 89–93% at 24 h post-exposure, and 70–73% at 96 h post-exposure across all treatments. We saw no evidence of pathology in the visceral organs of treated animals. Our results indicate that application of Zequanox at the maximum approved concentration and exposure duration did not cause significant mortality or treatment-related histopathological changes to G. lacustris and Hexagenia spp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging organic contaminants in wastewater are usually analyzed by targeted approaches, and especially estrogens have been the focus of environmental research due to their high hormonal activity. The selection of specific target compounds means, however, that most of the sample components, including transformation products and potential new contaminants, are neglected. In this study, the fate of steroidal compounds in wastewater treatment processes was evaluated by a nontargeted approach based on comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The potential of the nontargeted approach to generate comprehensive information about sample constituents was demonstrated with use of statistical tools. Transformation pathways of the tentatively identified compounds with steroidal four-ring structure were proposed. The purification efficiency of the wastewater treatment plants was studied, and the distribution of the compounds of interest in the suspended solids, effluent water, and sludge was measured. The results showed that, owing to strong adsorption of hydrophobic compounds onto the solid matter, the steroids were mostly bound to the suspended solids of the effluent water and the sewage sludge at the end of the treatment process. The most abundant steroid class was androstanes in the aqueous phase and cholestanes in the solid phase. 17β-estradiol was the most abundant estrogen in the aqueous phase, but it was only detected in the influent samples indicating efficient removal during the treatment process. In the sludge samples, however, high concentrations of an oxidation product of 17β-estradiol, estrone, were measured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerial traps, using combinations of color and attractive lures, are a critical tool for detecting and managing insect pest populations. Yet, despite improvements in trap efficacy, collection of nontarget species ("bycatch") plagues many insect pest surveys. Bycatch can influence survey effectiveness by reducing the available space for target species and increasing trap screening time, especially in areas where thousands of insects are captured as bycatch in a given season. Additionally, bycatch may negatively impact local nontarget insect populations, including beneficial predators and pollinators. Here, we tested the effect of pheromone lures on bycatch rates of Coccinellidae (Coleoptera), Apoidea (Hymenoptera), and nontarget Lepidoptera. Multicolored (primarily yellow and white) bucket traps containing a pheromone lure for capturing one of three survey target species, Spodoptera litura (F.), S. littoralis (Boisduval), or Helicoverpa armigera (Hu? bner), were placed in alfalfa and corn fields, and compared to multicolored traps without a pheromone lure. All-green traps with and without H. armigera lures were employed in a parallel study investigating the effect of lure and trap color on bycatch. Over 2,600 Coccinellidae representing seven species, nearly 6,400 bees in 57 species, and >9,000 nontarget moths in 17 genera were captured across 180 traps and seven temporal sampling events. Significant effects of lure and color were observed for multiple taxa. In general, nontarget insects were attracted to the H. armigera lure and multicolored trap, but further studies of trap color and pheromone lure specificity are needed to better understand these interactions and to minimize nontarget captures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]