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IntroductionOxidative stress mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a key process for adverse aerosol health effects. Secondary organic aerosols (SOA) account for a major fraction of particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5). PM2.5 inhalation and deposition into the respiratory tract causes the formation of ROS by chemical reactions and phagocytosis of macrophages in the epithelial lining fluid (ELF), but their relative contributions are not well quantified and their link to oxidative stress remains uncertain. The specific aims of this project were (1) elucidating the chemical mechanism and quantifying the formation kinetics of ROS in the ELF by SOA; (2) quantifying the relative importance of ROS formation by chemical reactions and macrophages in the ELF.MethodsSOA particles were generated using reaction chambers from oxidation of various precursors including isoprene, terpenes, and aromatic compounds with or without nitrogen oxides (NOx). We collected size-segregated PM at two highway sites in Anaheim, CA, and Long Beach, CA, and at an urban site in Irvine, CA, during two wildfire events. The collected particles were extracted into water or surrogate ELF that contained lung antioxidants. ROS generation was quantified using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy with a spin-trapping technique. PM oxidative potential (OP) was also quantified using the dithiothreitol assay. In addition, kinetic modeling was applied for analysis and interpretation of experimental data. Finally, we quantified cellular superoxide release by RAW264.7 macrophage cells upon exposure to quinones and isoprene SOA using a chemiluminescence assay as calibrated with an EPR spin-probing technique. We also applied cellular imaging techniques to study the cellular mechanism of superoxide release and oxidative damage on cell membranes.ResultsSuperoxide radicals (·O2-) were formed from aqueous reactions of biogenic SOA generated by hydroxy radical (·OH) photooxidation of isoprene, β-pinene, α-terpineol, and d-limonene. The temporal evolution of ·OH and ·O2- formation was elucidated by kinetic modeling with a cascade of aqueous reactions, including the decomposition of organic hydroperoxides (ROOH), ·OH oxidation of primary or secondary alcohols, and unimolecular decomposition of α-hydroxyperoxyl radicals. Relative yields of various types of ROS reflected the relative abundance of ROOH and alcohols contained in SOA, which generated under high NOx conditions, exhibited lower ROS yields. ROS formation by SOA was also affected by pH. Isoprene SOA had higher ·OH and organic radical yields at neutral than at acidic pH. At low pH ·O2- was the dominant species generated by all types of SOA. At neutral pH, α-terpineol SOA exhibited a substantial yield of carbon-centered organic radicals (R·), while no radical formation was observed by aromatic SOA.Organic radicals in the ELF were formed by mixtures of Fe2+ and SOA generated from photooxidation of isoprene, α-terpineol, and toluene. The molar yields of organic radicals by SOA were 5-10 times higher in ELF than in water. Fe2+ enhanced organic radical yields by a factor of 20-80. Ascorbate mediated redox cycling of iron ions and sustained organic peroxide decomposition, as supported by kinetic modeling reproducing time- and concentration-dependence of organic radical formation, as well as by additional experiments observing the formation of Fe2+ and ascorbate radicals in mixtures of ascorbate and Fe3+. ·OH and superoxide were found to be efficiently scavenged by antioxidants.Wildfire PM mainly generated ·OH and R· with minor contributions from superoxide and oxygen-centered organic radicals (RO·). PM OP was high in wildfire PM, exhibiting very weak correlation with radical forms of ROS. These results were in stark contrast with PM collected at highway and urban sites, which generated much higher amounts of radicals dominated by ·OH radicals that correlated well with OP. By combining field measurements of size-segregated chemical composition, a human respiratory tract model, and kinetic modeling, we quantified production rates and concentrations of different types of ROS in different regions of the ELF by considering particle-size-dependent respiratory deposition. While hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and ·O2- production were governed by Fe and Cu ions, ·OH radicals were mainly generated by organic compounds and Fenton-like reactions of metal ions. We obtained mixed results for correlations between PM OP and ROS formation, providing rationale and limitations of the use of oxidative potential as an indicator for PM toxicity in epidemiological and toxicological studies.Quinones and isoprene SOA activated nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase in macrophages, releasing massive amounts of superoxide via respiratory burst and overwhelming the superoxide formation by aqueous chemical reactions in the ELF. The threshold dose for macrophage activation was much smaller for quinones compared with isoprene SOA. The released ROS caused lipid peroxidation to increase cell membrane fluidity, inducing oxidative damage and stress. Further increases of doses led to the activation of antioxidant response elements, reducing the net cellular superoxide production. At very high doses and long exposure times, chemical production became comparably important or dominant if the escalation of oxidative stress led to cell death.ConclusionsThe mechanistic understandings and quantitative information on ROS generation by SOA particles provided a basis for further elucidation of adverse aerosol health effects and oxidative stress by PM2.5. For a comprehensive assessment of PM toxicity and health effects via oxidative stress, it is important to consider both chemical reactions and cellular processes for the formation of ROS in the ELF. Chemical composition of PM strongly influences ROS formation; further investigations are required to study ROS formation from various PM sources. Such research will provide critical information to environmental agencies and policymakers for the development of air quality policy and regulation.

The effect of relative humidity (RH) on the composition and concentrations of gas-phase products and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) generated from the photooxidation of isoprene under high-NOx conditions was investigated. Experiments were performed with hydrogen peroxide as the OH precursor and in the absence of seed aerosol. The relative yields of most gas-phase products were the same regardless of initial water vapor concentration with exception of hydroxyacetone and glycolaldehyde, which were considerably affected by RH. A significant change was observed in the SOA composition, with many unique condensed-phase products formed under humid (90% RH) vs. dry (< 2% RH) conditions, without any detectable effect on the rate and extent of the SOA mass growth. There is a 40% reduction in the number and relative abundance of distinct particle-phase nitrogen-containing organic compounds (NOC) detected by high resolution mass spectrometry. The suppression of condensation reactions, which produce water as a product, is the most important chemical effect of the increased RH. For example, the total signal from oligomeric esters of 2-methylglyceric acid was reduced by about 60% under humid conditions and the maximum oligomer chain lengths were reduced by 7-11 carbons. Oligomers formed by addition mechanisms, without direct involvement of water, also decreased at elevated RH but to a much smaller extent. The observed reduction in the extent of condensation-type oligomerization at high RH may have substantial impact on the phase characteristics and hygroscopicity of the isoprene aerosol. The reduction in the amount of organic nitrates in the particle phase has implications for understanding the budget of NOC compounds.

Photodegradation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) prepared by ozone-initiated oxidation of D-limonene is studied with an action spectroscopy approach, which relies on detection of volatile photoproducts with chemical ionization mass-spectrometry as a function of the UV irradiation wavelength. Efficient photodegradation is observed for a broad range of ozone (0.1-300 ppm) and D-limonene (0.02-3 ppm) concentrations used in the preparation of SOA. The observed photoproducts are dominated by oxygenated C1-C3 compounds such as methanol, formic acid, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, and acetone. The irradiation wavelength dependence of the combined yield of the photoproducts closely tracks the absorption spectrum of the SOA material suggesting that photodegradation is not limited to the UV wavelengths. Kinetic simulations suggest that RO(2)+HO(2)/RO(2) reactions represent the dominant route to photochemically active carbonyl and peroxide species in the limonene SOA prepared in these experiments. Similar photodegradation processes are likely to occur in realistic SOA produced by OH- or O(3)-initiated oxidation of biogenic volatile organic compounds in clean air.

Measurements of the C-H overtone transition strengths combined with estimates of the photodissociation cross sections for these transitions suggest that near-IR photodissociation of peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN) is less significant (J(near-IR) approximate to 3 x 10(-8) s(-1) at noon) in the lower atmosphere than competing sinks resulting from unimolecular decomposition and ultraviolet photolysis. This is in contrast to the photochemical behavior of a related peroxy nitrate, pernitric acid (PNA), that undergoes rapid near-IR photolysis in the atmosphere with J(near-IR) approximate to 10(-5) s(-1) at noon (Roehl et al., 2002). This difference is attributed to the larger binding energy and larger number of vibrational degrees of freedom in PAN, which make 4 nu(CH) the lowest overtone excitation with a high photodissociation yield (as opposed to 2 nu(OH) in PNA).

Mid-infrared vibrational spectra of He–HN+2 and He2–HN+2 have been recorded by monitoring their photofragmentation in a tandem mass spectrometer. For He–HN+2 three rotationally resolved bands are seen: the fundamental ν1 transition (N–H stretch) at 3158.419±0.009 cm-1, the ν1+νb combination band (N–H stretch plus intermolecular bend) at 3254.671±0.050 cm-1, and the ν1+νs combination band (N–H stretch plus intermolecular stretch) at 3321.466±0.050 cm-1. The spectroscopic data facilitate the development of approximate one-dimensional radial intermolecular potentials relevant to the collinear bonding of He to HN+2 in its (000) and (100) vibrational states. These consist of a short range potential derived from an RKR inversion of the spectroscopic data, together with a long range polarization potential generated by considering the interaction between the He atom and a set of multipoles distributed on the HN+2 nuclei. The following estimates for binding energies are obtained: D0″=378 cm-1 [He+HN+2(000)], and D0′=431 cm-1 [He+HN+2(100)]. While the ν1 band of He2–HN+2 is not rotationally resolved, the fact that it is barely shifted from the corresponding band of He–HN+2 suggests that the trimer possesses a structure in which one of the He atoms occupies a linear proton-bound position forming a He–HN+2 core, to which a second less strongly bound He is attached. © 1996 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vibrational predissociation spectrum of the He–HCO+ proton bound complex has been recorded in the 3 μm (C–H stretch) region by monitoring the HCO+ photofragment current. A rotationally resolved, parallel band is observed, red shifted 12.4 cm-1 from the ν1 transition of free HCO+. Analysis in terms of a diatomiclike Hamiltonian yields B″=0.2900±0.0002 cm-1, D″=(1.00±0.06)×10-5 cm-1, B′=0.2898±0.0010 cm-1, and ν1=3076.313±0.010 cm-1. Localized perturbations to ν1 rotational levels are observed and are tentatively ascribed to interactions with combination vibrational states made up of quanta of the CO stretch and HCO+ bend, and those of the low frequency intermolecular stretches and bends. Rotational linewidths are laser bandwidth limited suggesting a lower limit of approximately 250 ps for the lifetime of the ν1 level. © 1995 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A combined experimental and theoretical study of the structural properties of the H2–HCO+ ion-neutral complex has been undertaken. Infrared vibrational predissociation spectra of mass selected H2–HCO+ complexes in the 2500–4200 cm-1 range display several vibrational bands, the most intense arising from excitation of the C–H and H2 stretch vibrations. The latter exhibits resolved rotational structure, being composed of Σ–Σ and Π–Π subbands as expected for a parallel transition of complex with a T-shaped minimum energy geometry. The determined ground state molecular constants are in good agreement with ones obtained by ab initio calculations conducted at the QCISD(T)/6–311G(2df,2pd) level. The complex is composed of largely undistorted H2 and HCO+ subunits, has a T-shaped minimum energy geometry with an H2...HCO+ intermolecular bondlength of approximately 1.75 Å. Broadening of the higher J lines in the P and R branches of the Π–Π subband is proposed to be due to asymmetry type doubling, the magnitude of which is consistent with the calculated barrier to H2 internal rotation. The lower J lines in the Σ–Σ and Π–Π subbands have widths of 0.06 cm-1, around three times larger than the laser bandwidth, corresponding to a decay time of ≊90 ps for the upper level. The absence of discernible rotational structure in the ν2 band suggests that it has predissociation lifetime of less than 1 ps. © 1995 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Single Particle Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (SPAMS), a Single Particle Soot Photometer (SP2) and various meteorological instruments were employed to investigate the chemical and physical properties of black carbon (BC) aerosols during a regional air pollution episode in urban Shanghai over a five-day period in December 2013. The average PM2.5 and BC mass concentrations were 221 and 3.2 µg m-3, respectively, with the PM2.5 peak value of 636 µg m-3 at noon of 6 December and the BC peak value of 12.1 µg m-3 at 04:26 LT on 7 December. The number size of BC cores was distributed over ~ 60-400 nm, with a peak around ~ 60 nm. The BC core mass size distribution was within ~ 70-500 nm, with a peak around ~ 200 nm. The number concentration of BC-containing particles captured by SPAMS in the size range 200-1200 nm agreed very well with that detected by SP2 (R² = 0.87). A cluster analysis of the single particle mass spectra allowed for the separation of BC-containing particles into seven classes. Pure BC accounted for 0.53 % of BC-containing particles; BC attributed to biomass burning (BBBC) accounted for 22.60 %; K-rich BC-containing (KBC), NaK-rich BC-containing (NaKBC), BC internally-mixed with OC and ammonium sulfate (BCOC-SOx), BC internally-mixed with OC and ammonium nitrate (BCOC-NOx) were all attributed to traffic emissions and accounted for 73.24 %; unidentified particles accounted for 3.63 %. The size distribution of internally-mixed BC particles was bimodal. Detected by SP2, the condensation mode peaked around ~ 230 nm and droplet mode peaked around ~ 380 nm, with a clear valley in the size distribution around ~ 320 nm. The condensation mode mainly consisted of traffic emissions, with particles featuring a small BC core (~ 60-80 nm) and a relatively thin absolute coating thickness (ACT, ~ 50-130 nm). The droplet mode included highly aged traffic emission particles and biomass burning particles. The highly aged traffic emissions had a small core (~ 60-80 nm) and a very thick ACT (~ 130-300 nm), which is larger than reported in any previous literature. The biomass burning particles had a larger BC core (~ 80-130 nm) and a thick ACT (~ 110-300 nm). High concentration gaseous pollutants like NO2 were found to accelerate the aging process and resulted in a continuous size growth of BC-containing particles from traffic emission. The condensation of gaseous pollutants made a significant contribution to the extremely high particulate matter during heavy pollution episode in the urban area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of relative humidity (RH) on the composition and concentrations of gas-phase products and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) generated from the photooxidation of isoprene under high-NOx conditions was investigated. The yields of most gas-phase products were the same regardless of initial water vapor concentration with exception of hydroxyacetone and glycolaldehyde, which were considerably affected by RH. A significant change was observed in the SOA composition, with many unique condensed-phase products formed under humid (90% RH) vs. dry (<2% RH) conditions, without any observable effect on the rate and extent of the SOA mass growth. There is a 40% reduction in the number and relative abundance of distinct particle-phase organic nitrogen (ON) compounds detected by high resolution mass spectrometry. The suppression of condensation reactions, which produce water as a product, is the most important chemical effect of the increased RH. For example, the total signal from oligomeric esters of 2-methylglyceric acid was reduced by about 60% under humid conditions and the maximum oligomer chain lengths were reduced by 7-11 carbons. Oligomers formed by addition mechanisms, without direct involvement of water, also decreased at elevated RH but to a much smaller extent. The observed substantial reduction in the extent of condensation-type oligomerization at high RH may have substantial impact on the phase characteristics and hygroscopicity of the isoprene aerosol. The reduction in the amount of organic nitrates in the particle phase has implications for understanding the budget of ON compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]