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Background: Small, non-coding microRNAs, usually of 20-25 nucleotides, are known to regulate the post-transcriptional gene expression, which has a significant role in human biological processes, including immune-biogenesis, homeostasis and infection control as differential expression of such miRNAs is responsible for fine-tuning the organismic development. Methods: A search of bibliographic databases was carried out with a focused question on microRNA- Disease Prediction. A deductive qualitative content analysis approach was employed to assess the research's overall outcomes, review articles on prediction tools in miRNA-Diseases, and analyse the interventions. Results: Diagnosis and therapeutics of diseases and miRNA prediction methods hold importance in identifying the regulatory mechanisms. Collections of efficient miRNA prediction methods to identify miRNA-mRNA-disease regulatory relationships have been presented through this review, consolidating the potential of miRNAs as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker of multiple diseases, including COVID-19. Conclusions: The role of miRNA in the aetiology and pathogenesis of wide-range of pathologies, including viral, bacterial to chronic diseases such as cancer, is quite feasible through the modern tools in bioinformatics which has been elaborated focusing upon miRNA-disease prediction methods and their application potential establishing miRNAs as a robust and reliable biomarker in clinicomedical studies.

Gluconic acid is one of the most important natural acids which are moderately generated from glucose via a straightforward oxidation reaction process. Through the use of microorganisms like Gluconobacter (bacteria) and fungi, the reaction is facilitated through various enzymes such enzyme glucose oxidase and glucose dehydrogenase. The typical widespread, fermentation procedure is characterized by the use of Aspergillus niger (fungi). The primary gluconic acid derivatives, such as sodium gluconate, are widely used in the agricultural and food industries. Gluconic acid has several uses in the pharmaceutical, food, beverage, textile, cement, metal chelating agent, leather, and dairy sectors. Commercial production of gluconic acid made by fungi is well-established. Therefore, fermentation procedures and effective microorganisms are employed to produce gluconic acid with a higher yield and higher quality. These processes are also more economical and effectively convert inexpensive substrates into carbon sources. Production of gluconic acid has been reported with corn starch, grapes must, banana must, egg shells, and potato pulp using both solid state and submerged fermentation. This article provides a thorough analytical analysis for the gluconic acid production through microbial fermentation and its uses in agriculture and food. Additionally, this contemporary paper thoroughly examines the literature from recent years on the growth of gluconic acid production for the global market.

Organic acids are the important compounds that have found numerous applications in various industries. Oxalic acid is one of the important organic acids with different industrial applications. Different microbes have been reported as important sources of various organic acids. Majority of studies have been carried on fungal sources for oxalic acid production. Aspergillus sp. has been found efficient oxalic acid producer. Microbial productions of metabolites including organic acids are considered cost effective and eco-friendly approach over chemical synthesis. Fermentative production of microbial oxalic acid seems to be a good alternative as compared to chemical methods. Microbial production of oxalic acid still requires the extensive and elaborated research for its commercial production from efficient microbes using cost effective substrates. The present text summarizes the production of oxalic acid, its applications and recent developments in the direction of fermentative production of microbial oxalic acid.

Raw chicken litters have been applied to field soils where various vegetables are cropped for increasing the yield or productivity. Antibiotics are regularly mixed in the diet or drinking water of chicken grown in the marketable poultry farms for the treating bacterial diseases. Rampant usage of antimicrobials is also resulted in the survival of resistant bacteria in animal excreta, enabling antimicrobial-resistance genes (ARGs) transmission to other microorganisms together with human pathogens. Recently, it has been seen that incorporation of ARGs in vegetables/crops grown in raw manure-amended soil might be due to variations in soil microbial commensals following manure application. An abundances of ARGs like; sul1, aad(A), erm(B), str(A), str(B), intI1 and incW have been traced in manure-mixed soil in many studies compared to unmanured soil leading environmental contamination. Herein, we surveyed multiple investigations to determine how chicken manure affected microbial diversity, the retention of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in soil after manure application, and the transmission of antibiotic resistance genes. Composting can drastically lower enteric bacterial populations, particularly those that carry ARGs. Prior to being applied to the ground, manures can possibly be treated to lessen the danger of polluting crops or water supplies by reducing the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes. ARGs appear to be a major source of worry in poultry, suggesting that these genes have been widely disseminated in the atmosphere by the industry.

Phytochemicals are the natural biomolecules produced by plants via primary or secondary metabolism, which have been known to have many potential health benefits to human beings. Flavonoids or phytoestrogens constitute a major group of such phytochemicals widely available in variety of vegetables, fruits, herbs, tea, and so forth, implicated in a variety of bio-pharmacological and biochemical activities against diseases including bacterial, viral, cancer, inflammatory, and autoimmune disorders. More recently, these natural biomolecules have been shown to have effective antiviral properties via therapeutically active ingredients within them, acting at different stages of infection. Current review emphasizes upon the role of these flavonoids in physiological functions, prevention and treatment of viral diseases. More so the review focuses specifically upon the antiviral effects exhibited by these natural biomolecules against RNA viruses including coronaviruses. Furthermore, the article would certainly provide a lead to the scientific community for the effective therapeutic antiviral use of flavonoids using potential cost-effective tools for improvement of the pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and biodistribution of such compounds for the concrete action along with the promotion of human health.

Microbial metabolites have gained lot of industrial interest. These are currently employed in various industries including pharmaceuticals, chemical, textiles, food etc. Organic acids are among the important microbial products. Production of microbial organic acids present numerous advantages like agro-industrial waste may be utilized as substrate, low production cost, natural in origin and production is environment friendly. Malic acid is an organic acid (C4 dicarboxylic acid) that can be produced by microbes. It is also useful in industrial sectors as food, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals etc. Production/extraction of malic acid has been reported from fruits, egg shells, microbes, via chemical synthesis, bio-transformation and from renewable sources. Microbial production of malic acid seems very promising due to various advantages and the approach is environment-friendly. In recent years, researchers have focused on fermentative microbial production of malic acid and possibility of using agro-industrial waste as raw substrates. In current article, malic acid production along with applications has been discussed with recent advances in the area.

Access to safe water supplies is a critical human need. However, bacterial contamination, environmental and anthropogenic factors such as climate changes and high growth rate of the population have contributed to continuing water scarcity and degradation. Fresh water paucity and land use changes following rapid urbanization have also led to a need for increased capacity of treating bacterial load in the water bodies. Consumption of contaminated water causes an estimated 88% of Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY) from diarrheal disease, and is responsible for 1.8 million deaths and 4.1% of total DALY global burden of diseases (GBD). The United Nations (UN) has defined a water stressed area as regions where water consumption surpasses 10% of renewable fresh water resources. Around 97% of water on earth is salt water in the oceans and fresh water comprises only 3% of total water on earth. Around 68.7% of fresh water is reserved in glaciers. Approximately 30.1% and 0.3% of fresh water is ground water and surface water respectively. 0.9% of the remaining is water in other forms including soil moisture, swamp water, and permafrost. A primary use of fresh water use is for drinking but 70% of fresh water withdrawal on earth has been used for this purpose. The demand for fresh drinking water has steadily grown in parallel with increasing food needs from a growing world population.

Staphylococcus aureus is a foremost human pathogen, which causes an array of infections in the community and the healthcare setting. Although much of the attention is focused on the methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), the methicillin-susceptible counterpart (MSSA) remains a prime species in infections. The molecular epidemiology of S. aureus, particularly of MRSA, demonstrated a rapid evolution in the past few years. Worldwide surveillance has suggested that MRSA is a serious problem in all continents, which underpin the dire need to map the global epidemiology of S. aureus, utilizing currently available advanced tools. S. aureus can effortlessly come over the use of antibiotics and acquire resistance. The MRSA epidemiology has been budding since its initial outbreak, which underpins a comprehensive medical approach to curb this pathogen. Vancomycin has been considered to be the drug of choice for years but the emergence of resistance has challenged its utility. Approximately, in the last one decade, a limited number of anti-MRSA antibiotics have been approved for treatment. Recent investigations highlight the prevalence of a genetically diverse clonal population of MRSA, which suggest potential tools to trace out the origin of the latter. Molecular typing techniques are significant tools to identify the chief spreading clones and lineages of MRSA and MSSA and to trace their dissemination. Since the evolution of S. aureus will continue, it is noteworthy to sustain the attention on the shifting epidemiology of S. aureus in the future utilizing PFGE, MLST, Microarray, WGS, SCC mec, and spa typing methods.

This review provides a concise overview of emerging renoprotective role of citrus flavonoid naringin. In recent years, naringin has emerged as a therapeutic candidate of interest due to its renoprotective role. Very limited literature is available but still it is interesting to find the strong candidature of naringin in renal function improvements. This is the first review article presenting the recent studies and mechanisms dealing with the renoprotective effect of naringin. Naringin is an important flavonoid from citrus fruits which contributes bitter taste to citrus juices. Naringin is an important compound with vast array of biological activities and immense therapeutic role. Naringin is well-known for its various biological and therapeutic activities. It has been found effective even in neurological disorders. In recent years, it has been investigated for renoprotective effect and has been found a promising agent. It seems an important and emerging compound of interest for protecting the renal functions under various conditions. Also, cellular and physiological aspects have been investigated for naringin-mediated improvement in renal functions. This review emphasizes on the emerging role of naringin as renoprotective compound with special emphasis on the pharmaceutical potential.

In the era of climate change, decreased precipitation and increased evapo-transpiration hampers the yield of several cereal crops along with the soil salinity and poor ground water resource. Wheat being the moderately tolerant crop face many challenges in the arid and semi-arid regions under irrigated agriculture. In view of this, the study was planned to explore the potential of durum wheat genotypes under salinity on the basis of physiological traits. Experiment was designed as RBD in three replications to evaluate 15 wheat genotypes with moderate saline irrigation (ECiw – 6 dS m−1) and extreme saline irrigation (ECiw – 10 dS m−1) along with one set of control (Best available water). Different physiological traits such as water potential (ψp), osmotic potential (ψs), relative water content (RWC), Na+ and K+ content were recorded in roots as well as shoots at the reproductive stage whereas photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll content were measured in the flag leaves. A significant variability (p

A variety of microorganisms including bacteria, yeasts, and fungi are constituents of probiotics, quintessential as a part of human health as they produce a variety of molecules deliberated to be antibiotics. The changes in gut microbiota have been known to impose an impact on advancements and the beginning of chronic inflammatory pathways resulting in genetic alterations leading to dysplasia, clonal expansion, etc. Dysbiosis of the gut microbiome has been known to promote patient susceptibility as far as colonization by pathobionts is concerned. It has been observed that gut-microbial communities could influence immunomodulation, reduced inflammation along with gut homeostasis restoration. Probiotics, therefore, could be used as adjunctive therapy along with anticancer drugs reducing the level of inflammation. Moreover, probiotics have also been quite effective as a therapeutic option in the treatment/prevention of dental caries, periodontal diseases, urogenital infections, and gastrointestinal infections. Similarly, prebiotics are classified as non-digestible food ingredients which selectively stimulate the growth and metabolism of healthy bacteria in the intestinal tract, thereby improving the intestinal balance of an organism. The current review emphasizes upon the significant role of probiotics and prebiotics in influencing the microbiota which could further influence the immune system development and its perturbation as well as forming a symbiotic relationship with the host-maintaining balanced and efficient immune response further protecting from colonization by pathogens. The study further enhances our understanding about the key roles played by probiotics and prebiotics in the stimulation of the immune system, reducing the inflammatory responses and oxidative stress as well.

An experiment was planned to explore variability of durum wheat toward salinity stress in randomised block design with two tolerant and one sensitive check under three different environments, i.e., control, ECiw—6 dS m−1 and ECiw—10 dS m−1 in three replications. Different physico-biochemical traits were measured in roots as well as shoots at the reproductive stage. Both roots and shoots showed MI of 8.5% on mean basis under normal condition which increased to 32.78% in roots and 31.44% in shoots at the extreme level of salinity ECiw—10 dS m−1. Significant increase was noted in proline content in roots as well as in shoots under stress environment and found approximately 2.5 times higher mean proline accumulation in roots and in shoots. TSS content increased in roots while reverse trend was noted for shoots. Shoots had higher accumulation of soluble proteins in comparison with roots, but the shoot soluble protein decreased with salinity while roots showed the reverse trend, i.e., content increased under salinity stress. KRL 99, KRL 3–4, MACS 3949 maintained their root as well as shoot Na+/K+ below 1 under the severe stress of ECiw—10 dS m−1. Results showed that genotypes exhibited a significant differential response and the antioxidative enzyme activity increased both in roots and shoots under mild and severe salinity. Overall, it was noted that individual genotypes displayed variability in terms of physico-biochemical traits toward salinity stress that confers their ability to survive under stress environment and could serve as a genetic source for salt tolerance breeding programmes.

The effect of saline irrigation (EC

Background: Legumes are under explored crops in comparison to staple cereal crops and decreasing agricultural lands along with waste lands and poor water resources are the main constraints for sustainable agricultural production. Chickpea is the third most important food legume, known for its high nutritive values, generally considered as relatively salt sensitive crop. Existence of large genetic variation provides opportunity to explore variations and exploit the available salinity tolerance in chickpea. Methods: A Randomised block design experiment was conducted to explore the salinity tolerance in 10 chickpea genotypes including CSG-8962 (Karnal Chana-1), as salt tolerant check during 2018-19 and 2019-20 under control and salinity ECiw 6 dS/m and ECiw 9 dS/m. The leachate was collected from time to time to monitor the buildup of the desired salinity. At harvesting stage, yield and yield attributing traits were recorded and yield indices were calculated to identify the potential of chickpea genotypes against salinity stress.Result: Saline irrigation water significantly decreased the number of pods/plant by 21.29% under ECiw 6 dS/m and 53.29% under ECiw 9 dS/m. Genotypes ICCV 10, CSG 8962 and DCP 92-3 retained maximum number of filled pods at ECiw 6 dS/m, while under higher salinity of ECiw 9 dS/m, CSG 8962, ICCV 10 and KWR108 had the highest filled pods. Saline water of 6 dS/m caused reduction of 36.1% - 65.0% in grain yield, which further increased to 81.0% - 98.5% with saline water of 9 dS/m. Genotypes S7 and ICCV - 10 had percent grain yield reduction of 36.13% and 41.24% respectively whereas the salt tolerant check had a percent reduction of 46.94% at ECiw 6 dS/m. Based on studied yield indices, genotypes S7, KWR108 and CSG 8962 showed relatively higher tolerance than other studied genotypes, whereas BG 256 and ICC 4463 were the most salt sensitive chickpea genotypes.

Fuel cells are devices that convert chemical energy of a fuel into electrical energy. Biofuel cells use whole organism or enzyme, as catalysts (in at least one of their electrodes). Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) employ whole living microbial cell or microbial components for energy generation. Generally, whole living microbial cells are used for MFCs. Microbial cells are of particular interest for generating electric energy in nontraditional approach for environment conservation as well as for use of waste resources. MFCs can be important in various applications as alternate source of energy. In majority of reports on MFCs, mesophilic microbes have been studied for power. Currently, researchers are working on development of efficient MFCs based on thermophilic microorganisms. Thermophilic microbes have high rate of biochemical reactions and high rate of electron production which may be beneficial for their applications in MFCs operational at higher temperature. In this chapter, the concept of biofuel cell and developmental aspects of thermophilic MFCs have been presented for sustainable energy production in environment-friendly approach.

Any alteration at the genetic or epigenetic level, may result in multiplex of diseases including tumorigenesis which ultimately results in the cancer development. Restoration of the normal epigenome by reversing the epigenetic alterations have been reported in tumors paving the way for development of an effective epigenetic treatment in cancer. However, delineating various epigenetic events has been a challenging task so far despite substantial progress in understanding DNA methylation and histone modifications during transcription of genes. Many inhibitors in the form of epigenetic drugs mostly targeting chromatin and histone modifying enzymes including DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) enzyme inhibitors and a histone deacetylases (HDACs) inhibitor, have been in use subsequent to the approval by FDA for cancer treatment. Similarly, other inhibitory drugs, such as FK228, suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) and MS-275, have been successfully tested in clinical studies. Despite all these advancements, still we see a hazy view as far as a promising epigenetic anticancer therapy is concerned. The challenges are to have more specific and effective inhibitors with negligible side effects. Moreover, the alterations seen in tumors are not well understood for which one has to gain deeper insight into the tumor pathology as well. Current review focusses on such epigenetic alterations occurring in cancer and the effective strategies to utilize such alterations for potential therapeutic use and treatment in cancer.

Wheat is one of the most important food crops cultivated in India that considered as moderately sensitive to salinity stress. Present study was conducted to evaluate the growth and developmental response of wheat varieties to salt stress using hydroponics technique. Four wheat genotypes i.e. two durum (HI 8713 and MACS 4028) and two bread wheat (KRL 99 and KRL 210) were selected to study their response under control (best available water) and extreme saline environment (ECiw - 10 dS m-1). Using root length as an index of tolerance, KRL 99 was identified as the most tolerant genotypes which showed 35.67 % reduction in root length under saline environment, whereas other showed higher reduction in root length i.e. 41.78% in KRL 210, 50.68% in MACS 4028 and 78.61% in HI 8713, respectively. Similar results were also noted for shoot length. Under saline condition, higher protein accumulation was recorded in MACS 4028 and HI 8713, whereas KRL 210 showed the less increase (42.5%). All the studied genotypes also showed differential protein profiling banding pattern. The present study concluded that durum wheat genotype also have some potential to survive under saline condition based on growth parameters.

Mungbean is an important food grain legume with high economic status. It has an excellent source of dietary protein and nutritional health benefits, particularly for the vegetarians. It increases s...

The gut microbiota composition and dietary factors in our food along with the use of prebiotics and probiotics play an important role in the maintenance of human health. A well-balanced gut microbial population is necessary for the host and the microbiota to coexist in a mutually beneficial relationship maintaining homeostasis. Considering the potential of modern technological tools, it is possible nowadays to engineer prebiotic bacteria having a positive influence on the microbiome on one hand while on the other one may have the ease to get rid of the pathogenic proinflammatory microbes or elements causing dysbiosis. Past studies have seen that in cancer there is a loss of inter-microbial relationship cum interactions within microbiota members, the metabolic products produced by them and the host immune system in a microbial ecosystem, leading to dysbiosis. Current review highlights the importance of probiotics in the management of cancer by bringing together majority of the studies together at a single platform and moreover, stresses upon the need to maintain eubiosis in order to evade and inhibit the progression of cancer. Continuous expansion in knowledge about probiotics, their effect on various cancers and the underlying mechanism of action has raised the global scientific interest towards their possible use against different cancers. Furthermore, the article emphasizes upon the need to explore newer therapeutic targets comprising of the microbiome which could further pave the way to the concept of personalized medicines for various kinds of malignancies so as to derive maximum benefits of a treatment modality and to preserve the microbial homeostasis.

Cancer being a multiplex disease which involves many genomic and physiological alterations that occur consistently in the cancerous tissue, making the treatment and management of the disease even more complicated. The human gut microbiota (GM) harbors collective genomes of microbes comprising of trillions of bacteria along with fungi, archaea, and viruses that have the tendency to affect the development and progression of cancer. Moreover, inter-microbial interactions, diversity and distinct differences among the GM populations could influence the course of disease, making the microbiome an ideal target or to be modulated in such a way so as to improve cancer therapeutics with better efficacy and reduced toxicity. Current review focuses upon exploring the association of gut microbiota with the progression of cancer for which a structured search of bibliographic databases for peer-reviewed research literature has been carried out using focused review questions and inclusion/exclusion criteria. Through this review one could envisage a wide-spectrum role of microbiota in maintaining host metabolism, immune homeostasis paving the way for an anticancer diagnostic and therapeutic solution that has the potential to counter the menace of anti-cancer drug resistance as well.

Naringin is a flavonoid naturally present in citrus fruits. It is present in orange, grapefruit, lemon and other fruits of citrus family. Naringin is the major cause of bitterness in citrus fruit juices. This flavonoid may cause interference during the citrus fruit juice processing. Naringinase (E.C.3.2.1.40) is an enzyme which catalyzes the hydrolysis of naringin into prunin and then into naringenin, which is non-bitter and tasteless. Naringinase is produced by many microorganisms but the commercial production of this microbial enzyme is still the area of interest. Naringinase is chiefly produced by various fungal strains and it has been reported for elimination of bitter flavour (due to naringin) in citrus fruit juice. Few bacterial sources have also been reported for naringinase. Besides removal of bitterness, naringainase has potent application in enhancement of aroma in wine making. This review focuses over microbial sources, production and applications of naringinase in food industries.

Intellectual property basically takes into consideration any creation or innovation which could be seen as a sort of asset or a physical property related to individual’s intellect. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) have been mainly categorized into four major areas including patents, copyrights, trademarks, and rights related to some unique design. IPR in the field of microbiology and more specifically for microorganisms is of paramount importance. Modern biotechnology includes microbiology and other allied fields including microbial biotechnology, industrial biotechnology, and food biotechnology. The advancements in life science disciplines with the evolution of microbial biotechnology, recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology, and genetic engineering have pressed policy makers to consider the engineered microorganisms and their products to be patentable. Any invention may lead to grant of a patent if the invention meets the standard criteria of being novel in itself or it has significant commercial applicability or industrial prospects. Whether microorganisms are patentable or not has still remained a question of debate, but the microbial products, metabolites, production processes, and techniques are very much patentable. In present scenario, native microorganisms are not patentable but genetically engineered ones, and having industrial importance can be considered to be patented subject to satisfying other regulations. Current chapter collectively describes various rights attributed to intellectual property in general and what are the prescribed guidelines related to microorganisms and their products for patent filing.

Mungbean is an ecologically important food grain legume crop. Susceptibility towards salinity stress has limited the productivity of mungbean. The effect of salt stress on two popular mungbean varieties ("Pusa vishal" and "Pusa ratna") has been compared during summer and spring seasons. The experiment was carried out at two salinity stress levels (50 mM and 75 mM NaCl). Significant variations and adaptability among stressed and non-stressed plants were observed in both varieties. The plants in early vegetative stage were found more resistant to salinity as compared to plants in late vegetative and reproductive stage. Salt stress, high temperature and salinity induced osmotic stress severely limited the plant growth, morphology, physiology and yield characteristics during summer. Measured parameters were less affected during spring season. The tolerant variety „Pusa vishal‟ exhibited less reduction in plant height, total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, plant length, leaf area, rate of photosynthesis, number of pods per plant and grain yield at high salinity level. However, the susceptible variety „Pusa ratna‟ showed higher reduction for the measured parameters under salinity stress. A delay in pod ripening during spring season resulted in less pod-shattering. The present study may help to execute further research on screening of large mungbean germplasm for salt tolerance during spring season. The germplasm screening may help to identify resistant genotypes for genetic improvement of mungbean for growing in saline soil.

Mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] is an important food grain legume. Salt stress adversely affects the yield of mungbean. One hundred and seventeen mungbean genotypes from core collection (NBPGR, New Delhi) were evaluated first time for salt tolerance under five different salinity treatments, i.e. EC0, EC4.0, EC7.0, EC10.0, and EC16.0 (dS/m) at early seedling growth stage. The germination% and seedling growth characteristics, i.e. plumule, radical and total seedling length, and seedling vigor of 4-day old seedlings were investigated. Result showed that all traits decreased gradually with increasing level of salt stress in all the genotypes. The genotypes showed variations for all the measured features within themselves and at different salt stress levels. Seed germination was less affected trait as compared to that of radical length. All the genotypes were categorized in six groups on the basis of percent reduction in seedling vigor. These groups included highly tolerant, tolerant, moderately tolerant, moderately susceptible, susceptible, and highly susceptible genotypes. The tolerant genotypes can be evaluated at later growth stages to identify the promising salt resistant genotypes for efficient breeding programs.

Biofuel cells are devices capable of transforming chemical energy of a fuel into electrical energy. Biofuel cells can be abiotic, enzymatic, microbial, or mammalian type depending on the catalysts used for the oxidation and reduction reactions. e development and fabrication of biofuel cell are a multidisciplinary assignment that requires conceptual understanding of the metabolic pathways of microorganisms, catalysts, material sciences, fabrication, and bioelectronics. Presently, researchers are focusing on the development of biofuel cells that can be implanted in living organisms to power the medical devices or biosensors. Moreover, biofuel cells can also be better alternate for clean energy. is chapter focuses on the working principles for fuel cell, concepts of biofuel cell, types of biofuel cells, and application-based examples of biofuel cells for implantable devices.