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The dispute ‘about purification’ between the disciples of John the Baptist and a Jew (John 3.25) has to do with the priority of ethical purity as effected through baptism over the ritual washing prescribed by the Torah, e.g. before entering the Jerusalem temple. This issue is referred to in John 13.10 and 15.3, and also in P.Oxy. 840. It is presupposed here that the circle of Jesus’ disciples received John's baptism of repentance either from John the Baptist or from Jesus (John 3.22, 26; 4.1). The Gospel of John thus engages with an ongoing debate within Jewish Christianity about the obligatory nature of ritual washing.

The historical reliability of the titulus crucis as quoted in the Gospel of Mark is substantiated by its unique position in the practice of executions in pagan und Jewish tradition. With its inscription, Pontius Pilate sought to dash messianic expectations for the Jewish kingdom. The threat posed by messianic pretenders to Roman rule is demonstrated by Simon and Athronges, two self-appointed Jewish kings entering into the public sphere around Passover in 4 bce. It is therefore likely that these events coloured Pontius Pilate’s interpretation of Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem as being along the lines of the uprising of the two messianic kings Simon and Athronges.

In spite of the considerable number and quality of sources, Marcus, and his Valentinian doctrine and rites have been neglected in modern research. Marcus's doctrine, and special Gnostic rites and ceremonies, were not at all mere witchcraft or playing with numbers and letters, but a kind of religious syncretism. This chapter argues that it was so successful precisely because it was not understood as a syncretistic mixture of different religions and non-religious traditions. It begins by establishing Marcus's dates. The chapter then turn its attention to the community-life and cultic practice of the Marcosians and the challenge presented to the early Catholic Church by Marcosian syncretism. It discusses why Christians of the second and third century became Marcosians. The chapter finally briefs about a survey of Marcus's gnosis in the setting of second and third century religion. Keywords: early Catholic Church; Gnostic rites; Marcosians; religious syncretism; Valentinian doctrine; witchcraft

A special characteristic of the Gospel of Judas is its astronomical and astrological interest, especially traces of concerns about the influence of stars and planets. What celestial body should be identified as the star that influenced Judas is a question that has not yet been raised. This chapter answers this question by scrutinizing Judas' star, placing it against background of Gnosticism and the religious history of antiquity. The idea that a special star is related to Judas will be explained as a symbol of his superior position, especially in comparison with the other disciples of Jesus, but also with respect to humanity as a whole. Judas' star, the thirteenth heavenly being, will preside over the archontic kingdom whose work is "everything that is evil". What is this star? The star of Judas, which "goes ahead" of the others and rules over them? The chapter argues, Judas' star is the sun. Keywords: archontic kingdom; disciples; Gnosticism; Gospel of Judas ; Jesus; Judas' star