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The fluctuations in hematological values of wild-caught vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) are examined during habituation to captivity. The studies have shown that vervet monkeys need more time to adapt or habituate to a captive environment, as most hematological parameters reached a fairly stable level after 4 months, but WBC levels required almost eight months to reach stable values.

Background: Literature is scarce on the occurrence of bovine mastitis and antimicrobial resistance among dairy animals kept by pastoralists in the Kenya., Objectives: A cross-sectional study was carried out to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of subclinical mastitis (SCM) and evaluate the antibiotic sensitivity of bacteria isolated from dairy cattle kept by farmers in Kajiado Central sub-county, Kenya., Methods: A total of 202 lactating cows from 40 farms were sampled. Milk from the cows was screened for SCM using the California mastitis test, and the bacteria present in the milk samples were determined using standard bacteriological methods. The sensitivity of the isolated coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) and Staphylococcus aureus against antibiotics was tested using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method., Results: The prevalence of SCM at quarter- and cow-level was 31.7% and 53%, respectively. The prevalence of SCM was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in exotic breeds of cattle and those kept under an extensive system of production. A total of 19 bacterial species were isolated with the majority being CNS (40.1%), S. aureus (15.8%) and Micrococcus spp. (10.4%). S. aureus isolates showed varied resistance to the tested antibiotics with the highest resistance being against ceftazidime (75%), amoxycillin (50%) and streptomycin (46.9%). Several S. aureus isolates were resistant to oxacillin (34.4%) and cefoxitin (12.5%). CNSs were more resistant against ceftazidime (79.1%), amoxycillin (34.6%) and oxacillin (32.1%). Majority (92%-100%) of the Staphylococcus spp. were highly sensitive to ciprofloxacin a fluoroquinolone and augmentin., Conclusions: The high prevalence of SCM and bacteria resistant to antibiotics shows a need for animal health professionals and farmers to develop strategies for the management of mastitis and antibiotic resistance in dairy cows in the study area., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary Medicine and Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing health problem globally. To address this challenge, there is a need to generate baseline data on the prevalence and AMR profile of the main disease-causing bacteria. Here, we interrogated the prevalence of bacteria in the nasal cavity of healthy pastoralists in Kajiado Central Subcounty, Kenya, and the occurrence of AMR in Staphylococcus isolates among the study subjects. Nasal swabs from 176 pastoralists were cultured, and the bacteria isolates identified using standard phenotypic and biochemical bacteriological methods. Among the obtained 195 isolates, the most prevalent isolates were coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) (44.9%), followed by Enterococci spp. (43.2%) while Staphylococcus aureus prevalence was 8%. Antimicrobial sensitivity of the Staphylococcus spp. isolates to 14 antibiotics representing six antibiotic groups was undertaken using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Among the CoNS, the highest resistance was reported in amoxicillin (78.7%) and ceftazidime (76%), while the most resistance for S. aureus was reported in ceftazidime (100%), amoxicillin (71.4%), and streptomycin (71.4%). From an administered questionnaire looking at gender, animal contact frequency, history of hospital visitation and antibiotic usage, and habitual intake of raw milk, the study showed that male participants had a higher risk of carrying multiple drug resistant (MDR) bacteria than females ( p = 0.02, OR = 1.3). Likewise, habitual intake of raw milk was significantly associated MDR acquisition ( p = 0.02, OR = 1.82). This study reveals a high prevalence of AMR Staphylococcus isolates in the study area laying a foundation for further analysis of molecular characterization of the observed resistance as well as the development of interventions that can reduce the occurrence of AMR in the study area., Competing Interests: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Edidah Ong'era et al.)

Background and Aim: The emergence of drug-resistant strains of Eimeria spp. calls for the development of novel anticoccidial drugs. Plant extracts provide a possible natural source for such drugs. This study aimed to investigate the in vitro anticoccidial activity of encapsulated bromelain (EB) in chitosan nanocarriers on Eimeria spp. oocysts isolated from goats kept by farmers in Kenya., Materials and Methods: Bromelain was extracted from the peel of ripe pineapples using standard methods. Eimeria spp. oocysts were isolated from the feces of goats using a flotation method. The inhibition of sporulation was assayed after exposing the oocysts to solutions of EB, non-EB (NEB), and diclazuril (positive control) at concentrations between 4 mg/mL and 0.125 mg/mL for 48 h. The oocysts were examined under a microscope (40x) to determine the effects of the drugs on the sporulation process. The percentage of sporulation inhibition was calculated after 48 h and the inhibition concentration 50% (IC 50 ) was determined by probit analysis., Results: Bromelain manifested anticoccidial activity through the inhibition of the sporulation of coccidia oocysts. EB achieved inhibition with a lower dose compared with NEB. The IC 50 values of diclazuril, EB, and NEB were 0.078 mg/mL, 0.225 mg/mL, and 0.575 mg/mL, respectively. There were significant differences (p<0.01) between the IC 50 of EB and NEB compared with the standard treatment drug., Conclusion: This preliminary study showed that EB has anticoccidial activity supporting further evaluation at an in vivo level to develop a novel drug for the management of coccidiosis in goats., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright: © Daiba, et al.)

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic infection caused by the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii . It was discovered over 100 years ago and is credited as the most successful parasitic organism worldwide, able to infect and multiply in all warm blooded animals including an estimated 2.3 billion people. Toxoplasmosis is asymptomatic in immunocompetent individuals. Infection in the developing fetus and immunocompromised individuals can cause severe clinical disease. Toxoplasmosis is also a major cause of reproductive failure in livestock. The economic impact of toxoplasmosis is believed to be substantial. Factors associated with toxoplasmosis infection have been defined. Eastern Africa region is a high-risk area mainly due to the close association of humans and livestock as well as sociocultural practices, poor environmental hygiene, and poverty. The present paper provides a narrative review of published data on toxoplasmosis in Eastern Africa., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article., (Copyright © 2020 John Mokua Mose et al.)

Diurnal gene expression patterns underlie time-of-the-day-specific functional specialization of tissues. However, available circadian gene expression atlases of a few organs are largely from nocturnal vertebrates. We report the diurnal transcriptome of 64 tissues, including 22 brain regions, sampled every 2 hours over 24 hours, from the primate Papio anubis (baboon). Genomic transcription was highly rhythmic, with up to 81.7% of protein-coding genes showing daily rhythms in expression. In addition to tissue-specific gene expression, the rhythmic transcriptome imparts another layer of functional specialization. Most ubiquitously expressed genes that participate in essential cellular functions exhibit rhythmic expression in a tissue-specific manner. The peak phases of rhythmic gene expression clustered around dawn and dusk, with a "quiescent period" during early night. Our findings also unveil a different temporal organization of central and peripheral tissues between diurnal and nocturnal animals., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.)

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) patients manifest immunological profiles, whose variations over time can be used to indicate disease progression. However, monitoring of these biomarkers in human patients is beset by several limitations which can be offset by using chronic animal models. A recent improved monkey model of HAT using a Trypanosoma brucei brucei isolate has been developed but the immunological profile has not been elucidated. The objectives of the current study was to determine the IgM, IgG and IL-6 profiles in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in vervet monkeys infected with T. b. brucei. Three vervet monkeys were infected intravenously with 10 5 T. b. brucei, monitored for disease development and subsequently treated 28days post infection (dpi) sub-curatively using diminazene aceturate (DA) to induce late stage disease and curatively treated with melarsoprol (Mel B) at 119 dpi, respectively. Matched serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were obtained at regular intervals and immunospecific IgM, immunoglobulin G (IgG) were quantified by ELISA while IL-6 was assayed using a cytometric bead array (CBA) kit. Results showed that following infection, CSF IgM, IgG, IL-6 and serum IL-6 were significantly (p<0.05) elevated with peak levels coinciding with relapse parasitaemia. The IgG levels increased to reach OD peak levels of 0.442±0.5 at 126 dpi. After curative treatment with MelB, the serum IgM and Ig G levels fell rapidly to attain pre-infection levels within 35 and 49days, respectively. This shows that the profile of these immunoglobulins can be used as an indicator of curative treatment. CSF IL-6 concentrations of infected vervet monkeys showed no significant change (P>0.05) between infection and 35 dpi but levels increased significantly (P<0.05) with the highest level of 55.53pg/ml recorded at112 dpi. IL-6 elevation from 35 dpi may be indicative of parasite neuroinvasion hence can be used as possible candidate marker for late stage disease in the monkey model. Further, the marker can also be used in conjunction with IgG and IgM as markers for development of test of cure for HAT., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Gastrointestinal (GIT) parasites of domestic cats (Felis catus) not only cause morbidity but are also potential zoonotic agents. The current study aimed at establishing the prevalence of GIT parasites in cats kept by households in Thika region, Kenya. Fecal samples were collected randomly from 103 cats and analyzed for presence of parasites using standard parasitological methods. In descending order, the prevalence of the detected protozoa parasites was Isospora spp. 43.7% (95% CI: 40.4-47%), Cryptosporidium spp. 40.8% (95% CI: 37.5-44.1%), Toxoplasma gondii 7.8% (95% CI: 4.5-11.1%), and Entamoeba spp. 2.9% (95% CI: 1.6-6.2%). The prevalence of the observed helminths was Strongyloides stercoralis 43.7% (95% CI: 40.4-47%), Toxocara cati 23.3% (95% CI: 20-26.6%), Ancylostoma spp. 9.7% (95% CI: 6.4-13%), Dipylidium caninum 8.7% (95% CI: 5.4-12.0%), and Acanthocephala spp. 1.9% (95% CI: 1-4.2%). The percentage of cats excreting at least one species of parasite was 73.2% (95% CI = 69.9-76.5%). The study shows that the cats have high spectrum (9) of parasites which are known to affect the cat's health and some are of zoonotic significance.

Animal models for the toxoplasmosis are scarce and have limitations. In this study, a neurological mouse model was developed in BALB/c mice infected intraperitoneally with 15 cysts of a Toxoplasma gondii isolate. The mice were monitored for 42 days and euthanized at different time points. Another group of mice were orally treated with dexamethasone (DXM: 2.66 mg/kg daily, 5.32 mg/kg daily) at 42 days after infection and monitored for a further 42 days. A mortality rate of 15% and 28.6% was observed in mice given 2.66 mg/kg/day and 5.32 mg/kg/day of DXM, respectively. The mean cyst numbers in the brain of DXM treated mice increased up to twofold compared with chronically infected untreated mice. Infections up to 42 days were associated with an increase in both IgM and IgG levels but following dexamethasone treatment, IgM levels declined but IgG levels continued on rising. The brain of toxoplasmosis infected mice showed mononuclear cellular infiltrations, neuronal necrosis, and cuffing. The severity of pathology was higher in mice treated with dexamethasone compared to the positive control groups. The findings of this study demonstrate that DXM-induced reactivation of chronic toxoplasmosis may be a useful development of laboratory animal model in outbred mice used for in vivo studies.

We compared the nested internal transcribed spacer (ITS) PCR and the 18S PCR-RFLP (restriction-fragment length polymorphism) pan-trypanosome assays in a cross-sectional survey of bovine trypanosomiasis in 358 cattle in Kwale County, Kenya. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis as determined by the nested ITS PCR was 19.6% (70/358) and by 18S PCR-RFLP was 16.8% (60/358). Of the pathogenic trypanosomes detected, the prevalence of Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax was greater than that of Trypanosoma simiae The nested ITS PCR detected 83 parasite events, whereas the 18S PCR-RFLP detected 64; however, overall frequencies of infections and the parasite events detected did not differ between the assays (χ(2) = 0.8, df = 1, p > 0.05 and χ(2) = 2.5, df = 1, p > 0.05, respectively). The kappa statistic (0.8) showed good agreement between the tests. The nested ITS PCR and the 18S PCR-RFLP had comparable sensitivity, although the nested ITS PCR was better at detecting mixed infections (χ(2) = 5.4, df = 1, p < 0.05)., (© 2016 The Author(s).)

The detection of Toxoplasma gondii in free-range chickens is a good indicator of possible risk to human beings. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of T. gondii in free-range chicken using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Brain samples from 105 free-range chickens from three administrative areas in Thika region, Kenya, were collected, DNA-extracted, and analyzed using PCR to detect presence of T. gondii . The overall prevalence of T. gondii in all the three areas was 79.0% (95% CI: 70.0-86.4%) and the prevalence across the three areas was not significantly different ( P = 0.5088; χ 2 = 1.354). Female chickens had higher (79.4%) prevalence than males (78.6%), although the difference was not significant ( P = 0.922, χ 2 = 0.01). However, chickens that were more than 2 years old had significantly ( P = 0.003; χ 2 = 11.87) higher prevalence compared to younger ones. The study indicates that there was a high occurrence of T. gondii infection in free-range chickens from Thika region and that the infection rate is age dependent. Further studies should be carried out to determine the possible role of roaming chickens in the epidemiology of the disease among humans in the area., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Background: A key objective in basic research on human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is developing a cheap and reliable experimental model of the disease for use in pathogenesis and drug studies., Objective: With a view to improving current models, a study was undertaken to characterise the virulence and pathogenicity of three Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense stabilates, labelled as International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)-2918, ILRI-3953, and Institute of Primate Research (IPR)-001, infected into Swiss white mice., Methods: Swiss white mice were infected intraperitoneally with trypanosomes and observed for parasitaemia using wet blood smears obtained by tail snipping. Induction of late-stage disease was undertaken using diminazene aceturate (40 mg/kg, Berenil) with curative treatment done using melarsoprol (3.6 mg/kg, Arsobal)., Results: The prepatent period for the stabilates ranged from three to four days with mean peak parasitaemia ranging from Log 10 6.40 to 8.36. First peak parasitaemia for all stabilates varied between six and seven days post infection (DPI) followed by secondary latency in ILRI-2918 (15-17 DPI) and IPR-001 (17-19 DPI). Survival times ranged from six DPI (ILRI-3953) to 86 DPI (IPR-001). Hindleg paresis was observed in both ILRI-3953 (at peak parasitaemia) and ILRI-2918 (after relapse parasitaemia). Mice infected with IPR-001 survived until 54 DPI when curative treatment was undertaken., Conclusions: This study demonstrated that the stabilates ILRI-2918 and ILRI-3953 were unsuitable for modelling late-stage HAT in mice. The stabilate IPR-001 demonstrated the potential to induce chronic trypanosomiasis in Swiss white mice for use in development of a late-stage model of HAT., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article., (© 2015. The Authors.)

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a vector-borne parasitic zoonotic disease. The disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense is the most prevalent in Africa. Early diagnosis is hampered by lack of sensitive diagnostic techniques. This study explored the potential of loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in the detection of T. b. gambiense infection in a vervet monkey HAT model. Six vervet monkeys were experimentally infected with T. b. gambiense IL3253 and monitored for 180 days after infection. Parasitaemia was scored daily. Blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), saliva, and urine samples were collected weekly. PCR and LAMP were performed on serum, CSF, saliva, and urine samples. The detection by LAMP was significantly higher than that of parasitological methods and PCR in all the samples. The performance of LAMP varied between the samples and was better in serum followed by saliva and then urine samples. In the saliva samples, LAMP had 100% detection between 21 and 77 dpi, whereas in urine the detection it was slightly lower, but there was over 80% detection between 28 and 91 dpi. However, LAMP could not detect trypanosomes in either saliva or urine after 140 and 126 dpi, respectively. The findings of this study emphasize the importance of LAMP in diagnosis of HAT using saliva and urine samples.

Background: There are three subspecies of Trypanosoma brucei : T. b. gambiense, T. b. rhodesiense and T. b. brucei . The first two are infectious to humans, whilst T. b. brucei is not. Identifying an animal model of T. b. brucei that mimics human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) would enable researchers to study HAT without subjecting themselves to undue risks such as accidental infection., Objectives: This study assessed the sequential clinical, parasitological and haematological changes in vervet monkeys infected with T. b. brucei ., Methods: Three vervet monkeys were infected with a 10 4 inoculum of T. b. brucei (isolate GUTat 1). Late-stage disease was induced by subcurative treatment with diminazene aceturate 28 days post-infection. The animals were treated curatively with melarsoprol upon relapse. Parasitaemia and clinical signs were monitored daily and, at weekly intervals, the monkeys' blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were sampled for haematology and parasitosis assessments, respectively., Results: The first-peak parasitaemia was observed between seven and nine days post-infection. Clinical signs associated with the disease included fever, dullness, pallor of mucous membranes, lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly and oedema. Late-stage signs included stiffness of joints and lethargy. The monkeys developed a disease associated with microcytic hypochromic anaemia. There was an initial decline, followed by an increase, in total white blood cell counts from early- to late-stage disease. Trypanosomes were detected in the CSF and there was a significant increase in white cell counts in the CSF during late-stage disease. Infected vervet monkeys displayed classical clinical symptoms, parasitological and haematological trends that were similar to monkeys infected with T.b. rhodesiense ., Conclusion: The T. b. brucei vervet monkey model can be used for studying HAT without putting laboratory technicians and researchers at high risk of accidental infection., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

A survey was conducted to determine the occurrence of risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection amongst farmers in Thika District, Kenya. Interviews were conducted in a total of 385 households using a structured questionnaire. The water consumed at household level originated from taps (74.3%), rivers or streams (15.1%), wells (5.4%) and boreholes (5.2%). A number of households (46.8%) consumed water without boiling or applying any form of treatment. All respondents washed vegetables before cooking, whilst 99.0% washed fruits before eating. Boiled milk was preferred by 99.5% of the farmers. The majority (85.2%) consumed beef more often, whilst 1.6% consumed pork. The majority (98.7%) consumed thoroughly cooked meat. Meat was preserved by 17% of farmers. Only four farmers (1.2%) who practised mixed farming used gloves when handling livestock manure. Five farmers (1.6%) reported the occurrence of abortion in ruminants and pigs on their farms within the last two years before the study. Almost half (44.9%) of the households owned cats, which were kept mainly as pets (79.8%) and for deterring rodents (20.2%). The majority of households (91.3%) fed the cats on leftovers, whilst 8.1% fed cats with raw offal. Sixteen households (9.2%) provided housing for cats. Only five households (2.8%) had litter boxes, but none of the households with litter boxes used gloves when cleaning them out. Disposal of cat faeces was done mainly by women (55.5%). Only one farmer (0.3%) had some knowledge about toxoplasmosis, but was not aware of the transmission mechanism. The study highlights the need for public health education to raise awareness of risk factors for toxoplasmosis.

The management of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is constrained by lack of simple-to-use diagnostic, staging, and treatment tools. The search for novel biomarkers is, therefore, essential in the fight against HAT. The current study aimed at investigating the potential of IL-6 as an adjunct parameter for HAT stage determination in vervet monkey model. Four adult vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) were experimentally infected with Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and treated subcuratively at 28 days after infection (dpi) to induce late stage disease. Three noninfected monkeys formed the control group. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood samples were obtained at weekly intervals and assessed for various biological parameters. A typical HAT-like infection was observed. The late stage was characterized by significant (P < 0.05) elevation of CSF IL-6, white blood cell count, and total protein starting 35 dpi with peak levels of these parameters coinciding with relapse parasitaemia. Brain immunohistochemical staining revealed an increase in brain glial fibrillary acidic protein expression indicative of reactive astrogliosis in infected animals which were euthanized in late-stage disease. The elevation of IL-6 in CSF which accompanied other HAT biomarkers indicates onset of parasite neuroinvasion and show potential for use as an adjunct late-stage disease biomarker in the Rhodesian sleeping sickness.

Several animal models with varying susceptibilities to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection have been developed to study the specific aspects of RSV disease. Many of these models are used for testing antiviral compounds or in vaccine efficacy studies during preclinical evaluation. In this chapter, we describe the study design of an efficacy study of an RSV inhibitor, performed in a juvenile vervet monkey model for RSV.

The aim of this study was to characterise the sequential haematological changes in vervet monkeys infected with Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and subsequently treated with sub-curative diminazene aceturate (DA) and curative melarsoprol (MelB) trypanocidal drugs. Fourteen vervet monkeys, on a serial timed-kill pathogenesis study, were infected intravenously with 10(4) trypanosomes of a stabilate T. b. rhodesiense KETRI 2537. They were treated with DA at 28 days post infection (dpi) and with MelB following relapse of infection at 140 dpi. Blood samples were obtained from the monkeys weekly, and haematology conducted using a haematological analyser. All the monkeys developed a disease associated with macrocytic hypochromic anaemia characterised by a reduction in erythrocytes (RBC), haemoglobin (HB), haematocrit (HCT), mean cell volume (MCV), platelet count (PLT), and an increase in the red cell distribution width (RDW) and mean platelet volume (MPV). The clinical disease was characteristic of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) with a pre-patent period of 3 days. Treatment with DA cleared trypanosomes from both the blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The parasites relapsed first in the CSF and later in the blood. This treatment normalised the RBC, HCT, HB, PLT, MCV, and MPV achieving the pre-infection values within two weeks while RDW took up to 6 weeks to attain pre-infection levels after treatment. Most of the parameters were later characterised by fluctuations, and declined at one to two weeks before relapse of trypanosomes in the haemolymphatic circulation. Following MelB treatment at 140 dpi, most values recovered within two weeks and stabilised at pre-infection levels, during the 223 days post treatment monitoring period. It is concluded that DA and MelB treatments cause similar normalising changes in the haematological profiles of monkeys infected with T. b. rhodesiense, indicating the efficacy of the drugs. The infection related changes in haematology parameters, further characterise the vervet monkey as an optimal induced animal model of HAT. Serial monitoring of these parameters can be used as an adjunct in the diagnosis and prognosis of the disease outcome in the vervet monkey model., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

IL-10 has been suggested as a possible parameter for human African trypanosomiasis stage determination. However, conclusive experimental studies have not been carried out to evaluate this, which is a prerequisite before a potential test can be validated in humans for diagnostic purposes. We used the vervet monkey model of trypanosomiasis to scrutinize IL-10 in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Five adult males were experimentally infected with T. b. rhodesiense. The infected animals became anemic and exhibited weight loss. Parasitemia was patent after 3 days and fluctuated around 3.7 x 10(7) trypanosomes/ml throughout the experimental period. The total CSF white cell counts increased from pre-infection means around 3 cells/micro l to a peak of 30 cells/micro l, 42 days post-infection (DPI). IL-10 was not detectable (<2 pg/ml) in serum prior to infection. IL-10 serum concentrations increased to 273 pg/ml 10 DPI coinciding with the first peak of parasitemia. Thereafter the levels declined to a mean value of 77 pg/ml 34 DPI followed by a significant rise to a second peak of 304 pg/ml (p<0.008) 42 DPI. There was no detectable IL-10 in CSF. IL-10 synthesis is thus stimulated both in the early and transitional stages of experimental trypanosomiasis. That IL-10 is produced in early stage disease is an interesting finding unlikely to be detected in humans where it is difficult to determine the exact time of infection. The IL-10 peak observed on day 42 of infection might indicate onset of parasite neuroinvasion coinciding with a peak in white blood cell counts in the blood and CSF.