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The tomb of Tutankhamen in the Valley of the Kings, Egypt, one of the major attractions of the World Heritage Site of Ancient Thebes and its Necropolis on the West Bank of modern day Luxor, is toda...

At the height of the Qing empire, the Mountain Resort at Chengde, to the north of Beijing, was effectively the alternative capital of China. Founded in 1703 by the Kangxi emperor, its apogee was un...

The World Heritage site of the Mogao Grottoes near Dunhuang is China's preeminent ancient Buddhist site on the Silk Road. It flourished between the fourth and the fourteenth centuries and comprises some 492 cave temples with wall paintings and sculpture. The Getty Conservation Institute has been working with the Dunhuang Academy since 1989 on site conservation and management using guidelines, the Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Sites in China, that were developed at the national level. Elements of the successful twenty-year collaboration are discussed in the context of the conservation and management challenges faced at the site and the projects developed to address them, including conservation of the wall paintings in Cave 85, a late Tang dynasty cave with extensive deterioration induced by salts derived from the underlying rock; and visitors to the site, who have increased rapidly since the site was opened in 1979.

One consequence of years of dictatorial regime, international embargo and war was isolation of the professional community responsible for the protection of cultural heritage in Iraq. This community was cut off from international debate concerning the development of methodologies and theories on the conservation and management of archaeological sites, historic monuments and districts. The Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH), the governmental body responsible for the nation’s cultural heritage, was also depleted of resources. Professionals could not access information, new technologies, such as the Internet and digital photography, and could not follow the international literature or discussions refl ecting advances in practice. The Getty Conservation Institute and the World Monuments Fund partnered in late 2003 to form the Iraq Cultural Heritage Conservation Initiative (hereafter called the Initiative), to assist the SBAH to redevelop its professional and managerial capabilities. In meetings with the directors of departments of the SBAH in 2004, a plan was conceived to address the problems. A series of training courses was developed aimed at various categories of SBAH’s staff, from directors of regional offi ces to archaeologists, engineers and surveyors. The training programmes covered technical topics such as the use of computers, geographic information

Chaco Culture National Historical Park in northwestern New Mexico contains a wealth of archaeological resources, including 150 large earth and masonry structures under active management and preservation. In response to loss of original fabric from exposure over the last 100 years and more, as well as from continuous cycles of maintenance and repair, an extensive and long-term reburial programme was embarked upon in the late 1980s. The overall context of the site and the decision to undertake reburial as a principal conservation strategy is described in Part I of this paper. Part II provides a summary of the results of partial reburial at Chetro Ked, one of the ‘great houses’ of the canyon, in which protection of original timber was the main objective. Most of the wood at Chetro Ked could be covered only by a shallow overburden of soil, necessitating a specialized reburial design and materials to exclude moisture. Recent evaluation of the efficacy of the wood reburial was undertaken. Problems and s...

A reburial design concept for field testing for the in situ preservation of some of the most vulnerable of architectural substrates commonly found on archaeological sites is described. These substrates are earthen- and lime-based plasters, including those with painted and relief decoration, and mosaic pavements. A methodology is proposed for the evaluation of the performance of a selection of fill materials, intervention layers and moisture buffering layers, in on-ground simulated reburials. The guiding principles on which the design is based are that a stable, low-moisture environment provides optimal preservation for these substrate categories and that giving careful attention to the interface between the reburial fill and the substrate is of paramount importance. Two design models are described within the context of the reburial conditions required by these substrates and with a brief description of the reburial materials proposed for use. Integral to the test design is a comprehensive and sys...

Preservation through reburial is an effective strategy for cultural sites, and information exists that identifies broad categories of fill type, materials and the below-ground physico-chemical and biological conditions that favour survival of cultural artefacts. This apart, relatively little systematic research and testing has been undertaken on the reburial of archaeological materials under alternating wet—dry conditions, which pertain in many areas of the world where rich archaeological resources exist that are also a focus of excavation. Preliminary field research and testing was undertaken at the site of Port Selden, New Mexico, over an approximate eighteen-month period in 1995–1996 as a precursor to intended longer-term experiments. The ultimate objective was to determine optimal conditions for designed reburial interventions of archaeological materials. Testing was done in pits and on the ground and utilized a standard artefact comprised of adobe and lime as well as several indicator materia...

How is it possible to monitor the condition of a site or artefact after it has been reburied? In the case of the reburial of the extremely fragile and remote site of Laetoli in Tanzania this problem was addressed by creating a replica reburial close to the site in 1995. The method and materials used to rebury the trackway are replicated in the monitoring trench, which thus provides a ‘window’ on the condition of the trackway. A series of samples and indicator objects of different materials placed in the trench are intended to provide an understanding of the burial environment over the long term. Additionally, triangular recesses with sharply defined edges were cut into the floor of the trench to allow determination of the mechanical stability of the tuff to deformation under the reburial overburden. The trench was lined with root-inhibiting Biobarrier® geotextile and then reburied in the same manner as the trackway; existing acacia trees at the edge of the trench were allowed to remain. In 1997 ex...

The many intersecting issues that arise when deciding whether to shelter an archaeological site should be approached using a values-based methodology, one that has demonstrated its validity arid practical worth in conservation over recent decades. Nonetheless, pitfalls abound in the decision-making process and in establishing effective conservation criteria which should be based principally on a thorough understanding of the threats to the resource and the specific deterioration mechanisms operating, with the objective of creating a shelter that will preserve the site's identified values. An aspect that has received almost no attention in the past is evaluation of a shelter's performance, both qualitative and quantitative, in preserving the site. It is urged that this receive priority when establishing the conservation criteria during the initial phases of a sheltering project. Issues are illustrated from a range of diverse sites, including a number of published shelters. The paper first looks at ...

The history and significance of Mogao are developed in this chapter. For more than a 1,000 years Dunhuang had thrived as an outpost guarding the westernmost regions of the empire, protecting trade and encouraging the exchange of goods and knowledge between the heartland and regions to the west. Buddhism flowed along the Silk Road oases into China proper and beyond. During this period artisans constructed the caves along the mile of cliff face. The decorated caves of Mogao are among the world’s most important sites of Buddhist art and afford an unparalleled record of a millennium of Chinese wall painting and sculpture, depicting not only the religious practices of the period between the fourth and fourteenth centuries, but also life, customs, costumes, music, agriculture, and a wealth of historical information of the times. Management of the grottoes dates back to the 1940s when a group of young archaeologists and artists began the work of preserving, studying, and documenting the site. In 1999 the Dunhuang Academy began their master planning process following the methodology of the China Principles. Out of this process visitor management and, specifically, the urgent need to determine the relationship between visitation to the caves and deterioration of the wall paintings emerged as a priority.

The first phase of the methodology of the Mogao visitor study involved identifying the main issues impacting the site, indicators to monitor change and the desired conditions for the site, leading to defining limiting conditions for visitation. Within this basic framework a major research and assessment component was developed to address the issues impacting the grottoes and visitors. The components of the research, the questions they were designed to answer, the methods used, and the results achieved constitute the core of the study. The research design required, foremost, investigation of the causes and mechanisms of deterioration of the wall paintings and the impact of visitation on cave microenvironments to establish the link between visitation to the caves and salt-related deterioration due to high humidity. The research strategy integrated analytical investigations in the laboratory; extensive environmental monitoring and research; field testing; and assessment of condition and visitation potential for 112 priority caves. It serves as a model for investigative research on the impact of visitors on deterioration and high carbon dioxide in confined spaces.

The methodological framework of the Mogao study is based on the VERP (Visitor Experience and Resource Protection) model used by the U.S. National Park Service. The concept of “carrying capacity” has evolved in recent decades leading to VERP and other models for managing visitor impacts. The majority of scientists and practitioners who develop and apply these models come from a natural science background in which the application of the models has been aimed mainly at wilderness and natural heritage protected areas. Relatively little work has been done to apply these models to cultural heritage sites, especially to fragile and nonrenewable archaeological sites. The last section in this chapter explores the general characteristics of tourism, planning and administrative structures for cultural heritage in China, which differs from Western contexts where these models are applied.

Emerging out of the first phase of the Mogao Grottoes visitor study were limiting conditions for visitation, from which the strategies for sustainable tourism to the grottoes were developed in the second, response phase of the methodology. To achieve highest visitation requires operational changes that are challenging, but management tools (computer simulation models, reservation, and visitor management systems) allow site managers to create tours responsive to changing conditions and varied visitation demands on a daily or seasonal basis. Management actions that respond to monitoring include simple methods as well as technologically sophisticated ones such as automated monitoring stations that alert staff to harmful humidity and carbon dioxide levels. To compensate for a potentially diminished visitor experience during peak visitation, interpretive programs, varied exhibitions, films, and virtual cave tours have been developed and a new Visitor Center constructed outside the site’s boundary. Such programs, in addition to new presentation, lighting, and interpretation of the cave interiors, will diversify the visitor experience and dovetail with changing visitor demographics and patterns of travel that are already making themselves felt in China.

Erosion of the soft conglomerate of the cliff face at the Mogao grottoes of Dunhuang, China by windblown sand has thinned the rock of the roofs of many upper-level grottoes. In some cases, holes have formed; in others, the danger of roof collapse is imminent. To strengthen weakened roofs and to seal existing holes in an aesthetically acceptable manner, a lightweight, composite reinforcing and capping element was developed. The element, or panel, is made of a metal grid on a wood frame covered by geosynthetic materials, covered with sand and gravel. Potassium silicate is used to bind the sand and pebbles, thus presenting a natural appearance. Where holes exist, the interior is mud plastered on the metal grid. Experiments were conducted in the laboratory and in simulations at the Mogao grottoes to evaluate the concept and design prior to implementation. One field experiment was conducted on the ground to test cohesion and adhesion between the elements of the composite panel. The second experiment wa...

Cave temples along the ancient Silk Road document the cultural and religious transformations of a millennium. Researchers are striving to preserve these endangered statues and paintings.

The micro-environment of the Great Sphinx at Giza in Egypt was quantified by continuous monitoring over a three-year period of the climate at the site and the relative humidity and temperature within the stone of the monument. Environmental factors that potentially drive deterioration mechanisms were recorded, including thermal cycling, wind, nightly dew-fall on the monument and rainfall, and the role of these factors in weathering is discussed. A significant finding was the large daily change in temperature relatively deep within the stone of the Sphinx. Cycles of wetting from dew-fall and drying are an important cause of flaking of the limestone on horizontal and near-horizontal surfaces. The concept of using a night-time shelter for temporary protection of the monument from dew condensation and wind erosion is presented as an alternative to treatments such as consolidation or desalination of the stone.

The Laetoli hominid footprints in northwestern Tanzania are of major importance in understanding the evolution of humankind. The tracks are 3.6 million years old and pre-date the development of too...

In 1989, a temporary shelter was constructed to protect two mosaics in Cyprus. The structure was a prototype designed to cover certain categories of archaeological site. The concept behind the shelter was that it be lightweight, modular, easy to erect, relatively inexpensive compared with a conventional structure, and temporary if desired. The framework of the basic module has a zigzag profile and six sides: hence the name ‘hexashelter’. The hexagonal ‘footprint’ allows easy addition of modules by building laterally from anyone, or more, of the sides. It can also be built over somewhat irregular topography, and minimizes impact to the surface and to subsurface archaeology by using surface concrete anchor blocks as footings. The framework is aluminium tubing, covered with a fabric roof and with open-knit textile side panels. In 1991 essentially the same shelter was built at Fort Selden in New Mexico. The purpose of the second shelter was to evaluate its effectiveness. Quantitative data for the shel...

The repair of cracks and splits in wooden dishes and bowls posed a problem of cramping the split together while gluing. Edge-splits extending, in some cases, nearly the radius of the item cannot be closed by cramping with a Stanley webbing clamp which slips off the bowl, and for these repairs it was necessary to devise an eccentric-wheel-cramping jig. The concept of a cam or an eccentric wheel is an old one but its use and application as reported here may be novel as no similar device seems to have been reported. The jig is easily made in an hour or two and apart from standard tools it requires only availability of a wood-lathe to turn suitable cramping wheels. The jig has use in cramping and holding many irregular shapes. Its use is described in the present paper for the repair of bowls and canoe paddles.

(1983). A NOTE ON THE CONSERVATION OF ANTIQUE FURNITURE. ICCM Bulletin: Vol. 9, No. 3-4, pp. 101-105.

(1984). The use of silicones in the preservation of a field site – the Lark Quarry dinosaur trackways. Studies in Conservation: Vol. 29, Preprints of the Contributions to the Paris Congress, 2-8 September 1984. Adhesives and Consolidants, pp. 87-91.

(1981). The Corrosion Of Egg Shells By Acetic Acid Vapour. ICCM Bulletin: Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 3-9.

Cultural heritage is a complex and elusive concept, constantly evolving through time, and combining cultural, aesthetic, symbolic, spiritual, historical and economic values. The Handbook on the Economics of Cultural Heritage outlines the contribution of economics to the design and analysis of cultural heritage policies and to addressing issues related to the conservation, management and enhancement of heritage.

Few publications are available on the materials and techniques used by ancient Chinese artists to create Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) wall paintings. Most of the information that is available appears in Chinese and is not well known by the international conservation community. This lack of knowledge may affect the interpretation and reliability of scientific examinations of Chinese heritage materials. This paper presents the initial findings of a study to compare the results of a literature survey on Yuan dynasty wall painting materials and techniques with the results of scientific examinations of samples collected from murals in a Yuan dynasty Daoist temple at Yaowang Shan (Medicine King Mountain) in Shaanxi Province, China.

Ill.; International audience